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Kiwifruit

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For the TV series, see Kiwifruit (TV series).

Kiwifruit (often shortened to kiwi outside Australia and New Zealand), or Chinese gooseberry, is the edible berry of several species of woody vines in the genus Actinidia.[1][2] The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa 'Hayward')[3] is oval, about the size of a large hen's egg: 5–8 centimetres (2–3 inches) in length and 4.5–5.5 cm (1+3⁄4–2+1⁄4 in) in diameter. Kiwifruit has a thin, fuzzy, fibrous, tart but edible, light brown skin and light green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture with a sweet and unique flavour.

Kiwifruit by species
A = A. arguta, C = A. chinensis, D = A. deliciosa, E = A. eriantha, I = A. indochinensis, P = A. polygama, S = A. setosa.
Kiwifruit cross section
Yellow kiwifruit
Kiwifruit's morphology

Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China.[1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to the 12th century during the Song dynasty.[4] In the early 20th century, cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred.[1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II, and later became commonly exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s.[1][5]

Etymology

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Early varieties discovered and cultivated in China, were described in a 1904 nursery catalogue as having "...edible fruits the size of walnuts, and the flavour of ripe gooseberries",[6] leading to the name Chinese gooseberry.[1]

In the late 1950s, a major New Zealand exporter began calling it "kiwifruit" (Māori: huakiwi) after being advised by a United States client that border officials might associate gooseberries with the risk of anthrax.[7][8] The name was first registered by Turners & Growers on 15 June 1959[8] and commercially adopted in 1974.[1]

In New Zealand and Australia, the word kiwi alone either refers to the bird or is used as a nickname for New Zealanders; it is almost never used to refer to the fruit.[5][9] Kiwifruit has since become a common name for all commercially grown green kiwifruit from the genus Actinidia.[1] In the United States and Canada, the shortened name kiwi is commonly used when referring to the fruit.[10][11]

History

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Further information: Kiwifruit industry in New Zealand
Kiwifruit
 
"Kiwifruit" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese獼猴桃
Simplified Chinese猕猴桃
Literal meaning"macaque peach"
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinmíhóutáo
IPA[mǐ.xǒʊ.tʰǎʊ]
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpingmei4-hau4-tou4

Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China.[1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the Song dynasty.[4] As it was usually collected from the wild and consumed for medicinal purposes, the plant was rarely cultivated or bred.[12] Cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred.[1] After the Hayward variety was developed, the fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II. Kiwifruit were later exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s.[1][5]

 
Close-up of Slice of Kiwifruit skin.

In New Zealand during the 1940s and 1950s, the fruit became an agricultural commodity through the development of commercially viable cultivars, agricultural practices, shipping, storage, and marketing.[13]

Species and cultivars

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Kiwifruit 'Red Passion' with a red-ring

The genus Actinidia comprises around 60 species. Their fruits are quite variable, although most are easily recognised as kiwifruit because of their appearance and shape. The skin of the fruit varies in size, hairiness and colour. The flesh varies in colour, juiciness, texture and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable, while others taste considerably better than the majority of commercial cultivars.[1][14]

The most commonly sold kiwifruit is derived from A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit). Other species that are commonly eaten include A. chinensis (golden kiwifruit), A. coriacea (Chinese egg gooseberry), A. arguta (hardy kiwifruit), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit), A. melanandra (purple kiwifruit), A. polygama (silver vine) and A. purpurea (hearty red kiwifruit).[14]

Fuzzy kiwifruit

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The larger A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit) at the rear compared to the smaller kiwi berry

Most kiwifruit sold belongs to a few cultivars of A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit): 'Hayward', 'Blake' and 'Saanichton 12'.[2] They have a fuzzy, dull brown skin and bright green flesh. The familiar cultivar 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale, New Zealand, around 1924.[14] It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s.

'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavour. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but it has a smaller, more oval fruit and the flavour is considered inferior.[2][14]

Kiwi berries

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Kiwi berries are edible fruits the size of a large grape, similar to fuzzy kiwifruit in taste and internal appearance but with a thin, smooth green skin. They are primarily produced by three species: Actinidia arguta (hardy kiwi), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit) and A. polygama (silver vine). They are fast-growing, climbing vines, durable over their growing season. They are referred to as "kiwi berry, baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, or cocktail kiwi".[15]

The cultivar 'Issai' is a hybrid of hardy kiwifruit and silver vine which can self-pollinate. Grown commercially because of its relatively large fruit, 'Issai' is less hardy than most hardy kiwifruit.[16][17]

Actinidia chinensis

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Main article: Gold kiwifruit
 
Golden kiwifruit Soreli

Actinidia chinensis (yellow kiwi or golden kiwifruit) has a smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is 'sweeter and more aromatic' in flavour compared to A. deliciosa.[18] One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the centre of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit obtains a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, tastes better without peeling.[14]

A commercially viable[19] variety of this red-ringed kiwifruit, patented as EnzaRed, is a cultivar of the Chinese hong yang variety.[20][21]

'Hort16A' is a golden kiwifruit cultivar marketed worldwide as Zespri Gold. This cultivar suffered significant losses in New Zealand in 2010–2013 due to the PSA bacterium.[22] A new cultivar of golden kiwifruit, Gold3, was found to be more disease-resistant and most growers have now changed to this cultivar.[23] 'Gold3', marketed by Zespri as SunGold is not quite as sweet as 'Hort16A',[24] and lacks its usually slightly pointed tip.

Clones of the new variety SunGold have been used to develop orchards in China, resulting in partially successful legal efforts in China by Zespri to protect their intellectual property.[25] In 2021, Zespri estimated that around 5,000 hectares of Sungold orchards were being cultivated in China, mainly in the Sichuan province.[26]

Cultivation

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Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit (A. deliciosa) is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes.

Breeding

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Kiwifruit growing on supported vine

Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for rootstock, fruit bearing plants and pollinators.[1] Therefore, the seeds produced are crossbreeds of their parents. Even if the same breeds are used for pollinators and fruit bearing plants, there is no guarantee that the fruit will have the same quality as the parent. Additionally, seedlings take seven years before they flower, so determining whether the kiwifruit is fruit bearing or a pollinator is time-consuming.[27] Therefore, most kiwifruits, with the exception of rootstock and new cultivars, are propagated asexually.[27] This is done by grafting the fruit producing plant onto rootstock grown from seedlings or, if the plant is desired to be a true cultivar, rootstock grown from cuttings of a mature plant.[27]

Pollination

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Kiwifruit flowering

Kiwifruit plants generally are dioecious, meaning a plant is either male or female. The male plants have flowers that produce pollen, the females receive the pollen to fertilise their ovules and grow fruit; most kiwifruit requires a male plant to pollinate the female plant. For a good yield of fruit, one male vine for every three to eight female vines is considered adequate.[1] Some varieties can self pollinate, but even they produce a greater and more reliable yield when pollinated by male kiwifruit.[1] Cross-species pollination is often (but not always) successful as long as bloom times are synchronised.

In nature, the species are pollinated by birds and native bumblebees, which visit the flowers for pollen, not nectar. The female flowers produce fake anthers with what appears to be pollen on the tips in order to attract the pollinators, although these fake anthers lack the DNA and food value of the male anthers.[28]

Kiwifruit growers rely on honey bees, the principal ‘for-hire’ pollinator, but commercially grown kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate. The flowers are not very attractive to honey bees, in part because the flowers do not produce nectar and bees quickly learn to prefer flowers with nectar.

Honey bees are inefficient cross-pollinators for kiwifruit because they practice “floral fidelity”. Each honey bee visits only a single type of flower in any foray and maybe only a few branches of a single plant. The pollen needed from a different plant (such as a male for a female kiwifruit) might never reach it were it not for the cross-pollination that principally occurs in the crowded colony; it is in the colonies that bees laden with different pollen literally cross paths.[29]

To deal with these pollination challenges, some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers.[28] Most common, though, is saturation pollination, in which the honey bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards at a concentration of about 8 hives per hectare) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance.[1]

Maturation and harvest

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Kiwifruit is picked by hand and commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring.

Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on 'one-year-old and older' canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. In the northern hemisphere the fruit ripens in November, while in the southern it ripens in May. Four year-old plants can produce 15 tonnes of fruit per hectare (14,000 lb per acre) while eight year-old plants can produce 20 tonnes (18,000 lb per acre). The plants produce their maximum at eight to ten years old. The seasonal yields are variable; a heavy crop on a vine one season generally comes with a light crop the following season.[1]

Storage

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Fruit harvested when firm will ripen when stored properly for long periods. This allows fruit to be stored up to 8 weeks after harvest.[1]

Firm kiwifruit ripen after a few days to a week when stored at room temperature, but should not be kept in direct sunlight. Faster ripening occurs when placed in a paper bag with an apple, pear, or banana.[30] Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is very sensitive to the ethylene gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator.[30] If stored appropriately, ripe kiwifruit normally keep for about one to two weeks.[30]

Pests and diseases

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Pseudomonas syringae actinidiae (PSA) was first identified in Japan in the 1980s. This bacterial strain has been controlled and managed successfully in orchards in Asia. In 1992, it was found in northern Italy. In 2007/2008, economic losses were observed, as a more virulent strain became more dominant (PSA V).[31][32][33] In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty Region kiwifruit orchards in the North Island.[34] The yellow-fleshed cultivars were particularly susceptible. New, resistant varieties were selected in research funded by the government and fruit growers so that the industry could continue.[35]

Scientists reported they had worked out the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy and Chile originated in China.[36]

Production

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Kiwifruit production
2022, tonnes
  China 2,380,304
  New Zealand 603,522
  Italy 523,120
  Greece 320,270
  Iran 294,571
  Chile 114,533
World 4,539,471
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[37]

In 2022, world production of kiwifruit was 4.5 million tonnes, led by China with 52% of the total. In China, kiwifruit is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River, as well as Sichuan.[38] Other major producers were New Zealand and Italy.

Production history

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Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late '1960s to early 1970s' in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically.[39] Outside of Australasia, New Zealand kiwifruit are marketed under the brand-name label Zespri.[40] The general name, "Zespri", has been used for marketing of all cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012.[13][18]

In the 1980s, many countries outside New Zealand began to grow and export kiwifruit.[41] In Italy, the infrastructure and techniques required to support grape production were adapted to the kiwifruit. This, coupled with being close to the European kiwifruit market, led to Italians becoming the leading producer of kiwifruit in 1989. The growing season of Italian kiwifruit does not overlap much with the New Zealand or the Chilean growing seasons, therefore direct competition between New Zealand or Chile was not a significant factor.[42]

Much of the breeding to refine the green kiwifruit was undertaken by the Plant & Food Research Institute (formerly HortResearch) during the decades of '1970–1999'.[13] In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in Antwerp, Belgium.[13]

Human consumption

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A pavlova with strawberries, passionfruit, kiwifruit and cream
Kiwifruit, Zespri SunGold, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy262 kJ (63 kcal)
15.8 g
Sugars12.3 g
Dietary fiber1.4 g
0.28 g
1.02 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
24 μg
Thiamine (B1)
0%
0 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
6%
0.074 mg
Niacin (B3)
1%
0.231 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
2%
0.12 mg
Vitamin B6
5%
0.079 mg
Folate (B9)
8%
31 μg
Vitamin B12
3%
0.08 μg
Choline
0%
1.9 mg
Vitamin C
179%
161.3 mg
Vitamin E
9%
1.4 mg
Vitamin K
5%
6.1 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
17 mg
Copper
17%
0.151 mg
Iron
1%
0.21 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
2%
0.048 mg
Phosphorus
2%
25 mg
Potassium
11%
315 mg
Selenium
1%
0.4 μg
Sodium
0%
3 mg
Zinc
1%
0.08 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water82 g
Link to USDA FoodData Central entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[43] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[44]
Kiwifruit, green, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy255 kJ (61 kcal)
14.66 g
Sugars8.99 g
Dietary fiber3 g
0.52 g
1.14 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
122 μg
Thiamine (B1)
2%
0.027 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
2%
0.025 mg
Niacin (B3)
2%
0.341 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
4%
0.183 mg
Vitamin B6
4%
0.063 mg
Folate (B9)
6%
25 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Choline
1%
7.8 mg
Vitamin C
103%
92.7 mg
Vitamin E
10%
1.46 mg
Vitamin K
34%
40.3 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
34 mg
Copper
14%
0.13 mg
Iron
2%
0.31 mg
Magnesium
4%
17 mg
Manganese
4%
0.098 mg
Phosphorus
3%
34 mg
Potassium
10%
312 mg
Selenium
0%
0.2 μg
Sodium
0%
3 mg
Zinc
1%
0.14 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water83 g
Link to USDA FoodData Central entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[43] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[44]

Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat or used as a garnish.[1] The whole fruit, including the skin, is suitable for human consumption; however, the skin of the fuzzy varieties is often discarded due to its texture.[45] Sliced kiwifruit has long been used as a garnish atop whipped cream on pavlova, a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure, but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who have given birth to help them recover.[1]

Raw kiwifruit contains actinidain (also spelled actinidin) which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer[46] and possibly as a digestive aid.[47] Actinidain also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products because the enzyme digests milk proteins. This applies to gelatin-based desserts, due to the fact that the actinidain will dissolve the proteins in gelatin, causing the dessert to either liquefy or prevent it from solidifying.

Nutrition

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In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) amount, green kiwifruit provides 255 kilojoules (61 kilocalories) of food energy, is 83% water and 15% carbohydrates, with negligible protein and fat (table). It is particularly rich in vitamin C (103% DV) and vitamin K (34% DV), has a moderate content of vitamin E (10% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content. Gold kiwifruit has similar nutritional value to green kiwifruit, but contains higher vitamin C content (179% DV) and insignificant vitamin K content (table).

Kiwifruit seed oil contains on average 62% alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid.[48] Kiwifruit pulp contains carotenoids, such as provitamin A beta-carotene,[49] lutein and zeaxanthin.[50]

Allergies

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Allergy to kiwifruit was first described in 1981, and there have since been reports of the allergy presenting with numerous symptoms from localized oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylaxis.[51]

The actinidain found in kiwifruit can be an allergen for some individuals, including children.[52][53][54] The most common symptoms are unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth, with wheezing as the most common severe symptom; anaphylaxis may occur.[52][53]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Morton J (2011). "Kiwifruit: Actinidia deliciosa In: Fruits of Warm Climates, 1987". Center for New Crops & Plant Products at Purdue University. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
  2. ^ a b c Stirk, Bernadine (2005). "Growing Kiwifruit" (PDF). Pacific Northwest Extension Publishing. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
  3. ^ Beutel, James A. (1990). "Kiwifruit". In Janick, J.; Simon, J.E. (eds.). Advances in new crops. Timber Press. pp. 309–316. Retrieved 11 September 2018 – via Center for New Crops & Plant Products at Purdue University.
  4. ^ a b Ward, Carol; Courtney, David (2013). "Kiwifruit: Taking Its Place in the Global Fruit Bowl". Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. Vol. 68. Elsevier. pp. 1–14. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394294-4.00001-8. ISBN 978-0-12-394294-4.
  5. ^ a b c Green, Emily (8 May 2002). "Kiwi, Act II". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
  6. ^ "E. H. Wilson, Yichang, and the Kiwifruit" Archived 5 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine, A. R. Ferguson,
  7. ^ Moorfield, John C. (2003). "huakiwi". Te Aka Online Māori Dictionary. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  8. ^ a b Lui, Kevin (8 February 2017). "How the Chinese Gooseberry Became the Kiwifruit". TIME. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  9. ^ Deverson, Tony; Kennedy, Graeme (2005). The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-558451-6.
  10. ^ Bernadine C. Strik; Amanda J. Davis (1 March 2021). "Growing kiwifruit" (PDF). Extension Service, Oregon State University. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  11. ^ "Northern kiwi". Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. 17 October 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  12. ^ Huang, H.; Ferguson, A. R. (2003). "Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinesis and A. deliciosa) plantings and production in China, 2002". New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science. 31 (3): 197–202. Bibcode:2003NZJCH..31..197H. doi:10.1080/01140671.2003.9514253. S2CID 86106541.
  13. ^ a b c d Mike Knowles (25 April 2017). "NZ kiwifruit: how a major brand emerged". Eurofruit, Market Intelligence Ltd - Fruitnet.com. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
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  15. ^ "Hardy Kiwi". Penn State University College of Agricultural Sciences. Archived from the original on 23 December 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
  16. ^ Annual report ... annual meeting. 1 January 1996 – via Google Books.
  17. ^ Bowling, Barbara L. (1 January 2000). The Berry Grower's Companion. Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-489-3 – via Internet Archive. Grown commercially Issai is less hardy than most hardy kiwi.
  18. ^ a b "Zespri – Official Site". Zespri Group Ltd. 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
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  20. ^ Yang, Hong-Li; Wang, Yan-Chang; Jiang, Zheng-Wang; Huang, Hong-Wen (2009). "[Construction of cDNA library of 'Hongyang' kiwifruit and analysis of F3H expression]". Yi Chuan (in Chinese). 31 (12): 1265–1272. PMID 20042395.
  21. ^ "Turners plugs its Enza red kiwifruit – grown in China". National Business Review. 24 February 2010. Archived from the original on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
  22. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: How Was Zespri Gold Kiwifruit Developed?". Zespri Kiwifriut. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
  23. ^ "Golden times return for kiwifruit trade". NZ Herald. 26 May 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
  24. ^ "Zespri SunGold New!". Zespri. Archived from the original on 15 August 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
  25. ^ McClure, Tess (18 June 2021). "Kiwi wars: the golden fruit fuelling a feud between New Zealand and China". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
  26. ^ "Cuttings of prized SunGold kiwifruits were smuggled to China and NZ growers are divided over what to do about it". ABC News. ABC. June 2021.
  27. ^ a b c "Kiwifruit Propagation". University of California-Davis, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
  28. ^ a b "Kiwifruit pollination problems". Science Learning Hub.
  29. ^ https://honeybeesuite.com/how-bees-transfer-pollen-between-flowers/ Archived 20 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine Honey Bee Suite
  30. ^ a b c "Kiwi fruit". The UK Food Guide. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
  31. ^ "Kiwifruit vine disease by MAF Biosecurity NZ". Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
  32. ^ Watson, Peter (25 January 2011). "More virulent PSA strain a new worry for kiwifruit growers". The Dominion Post. Retrieved 4 September 2011.
  33. ^ Hembry, Owen (25 August 2011). "Relief for kiwifruit industry". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 4 September 2011.
  34. ^ "Suspected Bacterial Vine Infection". MAF Biosecurity New Zealand. 8 November 2010. Archived from the original on 13 November 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
  35. ^ "Kiwifruit and Psa – a timeline". Science Learning Hub – Pokapu Akoranga Putaiao. Curious Minds – New Zealand Government. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  36. ^ Butler, Margi I.; Stockwell, Peter A.; Black, Michael A.; Day, Robert C.; Lamont, Iain L.; Poulter, Russel T. M. (February 2013). "Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae from Recent Outbreaks of Kiwifruit Bacterial Canker Belong to Different Clones That Originated in China". PLOS ONE. 8 (2): e57464. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...857464B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057464. PMC 3583860. PMID 23555547.
  37. ^ "Kiwifruit production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2024. Retrieved 6 August 2024.
  38. ^ Huang, H.; Ferguson, A. R. (2001). "Review: Kiwifruit in China". New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science. 29 (1): 1–14. Bibcode:2001NZJCH..29....1H. doi:10.1080/01140671.2001.9514154. S2CID 84613254.
  39. ^ Sayeeda Bano; Frank Scrimgeour (June 2011). "New Zealand Kiwifruit Export Performance: Market Analysis and Revealed Comparative Advantage" (PDF). University of Waikato. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
  40. ^ "Zespri History". Zespri Kiwifruit. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
  41. ^ Skallerud, Kare; Olsen, Svein (2011). "Export Market Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industries: An Institutional Perspective". Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing. 23 (4): 310–329. doi:10.1080/08974438.2011.621841. S2CID 154770824.
  42. ^ Wilkinson, Tracy (26 May 2008). "Italy leads world as top producer of kiwis". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 13 April 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
  43. ^ a b United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  44. ^ a b National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
  45. ^ Kiwifruit: Science and Management ISBN 978-0-908-59628-7 p. 467
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