The Town of Randolph is a suburban city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. At the 2020 census, the city population was 34,984.[3] Randolph adopted a charter effective January 2010 providing for a council-manager form of government instead of the traditional town meeting. Randolph is one of thirteen Massachusetts municipalities that have applied for, and been granted, city forms of government but wish to retain "The town of" in their official names.[4]
Town of Randolph | |
|---|---|
City (de facto) | |
 Randolph Town Hall | |
 Seal | |
| Motto(s): Latin: Fari Quae Sentiat "To Say What One Feels" | |
 Location in Norfolk County in Massachusetts | |
| Coordinates: 42°09′45″N 71°02′30″W / 42.16250°N 71.04167°W | |
| Country |  United States |
| State |  Massachusetts |
| County | Norfolk |
| Settled | 1710 |
| Incorporated | 1793 (T) 2010 (C) |
| Government | |
| • Type | Council-manager |
| • Council president | William Alexopoulos |
| • City manager | Brian P. Howard |
| Area | |
• Total | 10.5 sq mi (27.2 km2) |
| • Land | 10.1 sq mi (26.1 km2) |
| • Water | 0.4 sq mi (1.1 km2) |
| Elevation | 184 ft (56 m) |
| Population (2020)[1] | |
• Total | 34,984 |
| • Density | 3,300/sq mi (1,300/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC−5 (Eastern) |
| • Summer (DST) | UTC−4 (Eastern) |
| ZIP Code | 02368 |
| Area code | 781/339 |
| FIPS code | 25-55955 |
| GNIS feature ID | 0618328 |
| Website | www |
| Randolph charter of 2009[2] | |
History
edit
Before European colonization the area that is now Randolph was occupied by the Massachusett, Wampanoag, and Pokanoket tribes.[5] It was called Cochaticquom by the local Cochato and Ponkapoag tribes. The town was incorporated in 1793 from what was formerly the south precinct of the town of Braintree. According to the centennial address delivered by John V. Beal, the town was named after Peyton Randolph, first president of the Continental Congress.[6]
Randolph was formerly the home of several large shoe companies. Many popular styles were made exclusively in Randolph, including the "Randies". At the time of Randolph's incorporation in 1793, local farmers were making shoes and boots to augment household incomes from subsistence farming. In the next half century, this sideline had become the town's major industry, attracting workers from across New England, Canada and Ireland and later from Italy and Eastern Europe, each adding to the quality of life in the town. By 1850, Randolph had become one of the nation's leading boot producers, shipping boots as far away as California and Australia.
The decline of the shoe industry at the beginning of the twentieth century led to Randolph's evolution as a suburban residential community. Boot and shoe making has been supplanted by light manufacturing and service industries. The town's proximity to major transportation networks has resulted in an influx of families from Boston and other localities who live in Randolph but work throughout the metropolitan area.
Starting in the 1950s, Randolph saw significant growth in its Jewish community with the exodus of Jews from Boston's Dorchester and Mattapan neighborhoods. In 1950, fifteen or twenty Jewish families lived in the town; by 1970, Randolph had about 7,000 Jewish residents, and about 9,000 in 1980, the largest such community south of Boston. At its peak, Randolph had a kosher butcher, Judaica shop, kosher bakery, and two synagogues. By the early 1990s, the population shrank to about 6,000.[7][8]
The inspiration for the nationally observed Great American Smokeout came from a Randolph High School guidance councilor, who observed in a 1969 discussion with students that he could send all of them to college if he had a nickel for every cigarette butt he found on the ground. This touched off an effort by the Randolph High School class of 1970, supported by the Randolph Rotary Club, to have local smokers give it up for a day and put the savings toward a college scholarship fund. The event went national in 1977.[9]
Registered historic places
edit
Randolph is home to four Nationally Registered Historic Places:
- Jonathan Belcher House, 360 N. Main St. (Listed April 30, 1976)
Home of Jonathan Belcher (1767–1839), built in 1806, home to the Randolph Womens Club (formerly Ladies Library Association) since 1911. - Stetson Hall, 6 S. Main St. (Listed December 7, 2011)
Former Town Hall, built in 1842. - Ponkapoag Camp of Appalachian Mountain Club (Listed September 25, 1980)
- Gills Farm Archaeological District (Listed October 4, 1983)
Geography
editRandolph is located at 42°09′24″N 71°2′56″W / 42.15667°N 71.04889°W (42.173417, −71.049124).[10] Located fifteen miles south of Boston, at the intersection of Routes 128 and 24, Randolph's location has been an important factor in its economic and social history. Randolph is located in eastern Massachusetts, bordered by Milton and Quincy on the north, Braintree and Holbrook on the east, Canton on the west, and Avon and Stoughton on the south and southwest. Randolph is 15 miles south of downtown Boston and 211 miles from New York.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 10.5 square miles (27.2 km2), of which 10.1 square miles (26.1 km2) is land and 0.4 square mile (1.1 km2) (4.10%) is water. It is drained by the Cochato River and Blue Hill River, which flow into the Neponset River.
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Record high °F (°C) | 68 (20) |
71 (22) |
89 (32) |
94 (34) |
96 (36) |
99 (37) |
100 (38) |
101 (38) |
99 (37) |
88 (31) |
81 (27) |
74 (23) |
101 (38) |
| Mean maximum °F (°C) | 56.6 (13.7) |
56.9 (13.8) |
65.6 (18.7) |
79.4 (26.3) |
87.3 (30.7) |
90.0 (32.2) |
92.9 (33.8) |
91.3 (32.9) |
86.9 (30.5) |
77.6 (25.3) |
68.4 (20.2) |
60.0 (15.6) |
94.7 (34.8) |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 34.7 (1.5) |
37.0 (2.8) |
44.1 (6.7) |
56.3 (13.5) |
66.8 (19.3) |
75.4 (24.1) |
81.7 (27.6) |
80.2 (26.8) |
72.7 (22.6) |
61.0 (16.1) |
50.1 (10.1) |
40.2 (4.6) |
58.4 (14.6) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 26.5 (−3.1) |
28.2 (−2.1) |
35.5 (1.9) |
47.1 (8.4) |
58.5 (14.7) |
66.5 (19.2) |
72.7 (22.6) |
71.4 (21.9) |
64.2 (17.9) |
52.5 (11.4) |
42.0 (5.6) |
32.5 (0.3) |
49.8 (9.9) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 18.3 (−7.6) |
19.5 (−6.9) |
26.9 (−2.8) |
37.9 (3.3) |
48.2 (9.0) |
57.6 (14.2) |
63.8 (17.7) |
62.6 (17.0) |
55.6 (13.1) |
44.0 (6.7) |
33.8 (1.0) |
24.9 (−3.9) |
41.1 (5.1) |
| Mean minimum °F (°C) | 0.0 (−17.8) |
3.1 (−16.1) |
10.1 (−12.2) |
26.7 (−2.9) |
37.5 (3.1) |
45.9 (7.7) |
54.9 (12.7) |
53.4 (11.9) |
42.3 (5.7) |
30.5 (−0.8) |
19.6 (−6.9) |
8.7 (−12.9) |
−2.5 (−19.2) |
| Record low °F (°C) | −14 (−26) |
−21 (−29) |
−5 (−21) |
6 (−14) |
27 (−3) |
36 (2) |
44 (7) |
39 (4) |
28 (−2) |
21 (−6) |
5 (−15) |
−19 (−28) |
−21 (−29) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 4.50 (114) |
4.00 (102) |
5.52 (140) |
4.76 (121) |
3.82 (97) |
4.63 (118) |
3.47 (88) |
3.91 (99) |
4.06 (103) |
5.49 (139) |
4.31 (109) |
5.39 (137) |
53.86 (1,367) |
| Average snowfall inches (cm) | 18.6 (47) |
18.2 (46) |
15.0 (38) |
2.8 (7.1) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.7 (1.8) |
1.8 (4.6) |
12.6 (32) |
69.7 (176.5) |
| Average extreme snow depth inches (cm) | 10.6 (27) |
11.5 (29) |
9.8 (25) |
2.6 (6.6) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.3 (0.76) |
1.3 (3.3) |
7.7 (20) |
17.1 (43) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 13.2 | 11.3 | 12.5 | 12.5 | 13.0 | 12.1 | 10.5 | 10.2 | 9.2 | 11.5 | 10.9 | 12.6 | 139.5 |
| Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 8.1 | 7.1 | 5.7 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.4 | 1.3 | 5.3 | 29.2 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 132.1 | 146.7 | 174.0 | 185.6 | 220.2 | 231.8 | 258.1 | 242.5 | 204.1 | 182.1 | 133.3 | 125.9 | 2,236.4 |
| Percent possible sunshine | 46.3 | 50.9 | 48.5 | 47.9 | 50.4 | 52.7 | 58.0 | 58.7 | 56.7 | 55.1 | 47.0 | 45.9 | 51.5 |
| Source 1: NOAA[11][12] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: BHO[13] | |||||||||||||
Demographics
edit| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1850 | 4,741 | — |
| 1860 | 5,760 | +21.5% |
| 1870 | 5,642 | −2.0% |
| 1880 | 4,027 | −28.6% |
| 1890 | 3,946 | −2.0% |
| 1900 | 3,998 | +1.3% |
| 1910 | 4,301 | +7.6% |
| 1920 | 4,756 | +10.6% |
| 1930 | 6,553 | +37.8% |
| 1940 | 7,634 | +16.5% |
| 1950 | 9,982 | +30.8% |
| 1960 | 18,900 | +89.3% |
| 1970 | 27,035 | +43.0% |
| 1980 | 28,218 | +4.4% |
| 1990 | 30,093 | +6.6% |
| 2000 | 30,963 | +2.9% |
| 2010 | 32,112 | +3.7% |
| 2020 | 34,984 | +8.9% |
| 2022* | 34,530 | −1.3% |
| * = population estimate. Source: United States census records and Population Estimates Program data.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] | ||
As of the census[25] of 2010, there were 32,158 people, 11,564 households, and 8,038 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,184 inhabitants per square mile (1,229/km2). There were 11,564 housing units at an average density of 1,145.4 per square mile (442.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 41.6% White, 38.3% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 12.4% Asian (6.3% Vietnamese, 3.3% Chinese, 0.9% Filipino, 0.8% Asian Indian) 0.0% Pacific Islander, 3.7% from other races, and 3.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.4% of the population.
Randolph is one of the fastest growing minority-municipalities in the United States. 60% of all students attending Randolph elementary schools are of African descent (black), 21% Hispanic descent, (predominately Dominican), 11% Caucasian descent (white), and 8% East Asian descent.
There were 11,564 households, out of which 29.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were married couples living together, 17.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.5% were non-families. 24.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.31.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 21.7% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 29.4% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.0 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $55,255, and the median income for a family was $61,942. Males had a median income of $41,719 versus $32,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,413. About 5.5% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.5% of those under age 18 and 5.0% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
editRandolph is situated in the Greater Boston Area, which has rail, air, and highway facilities. State Route 128 and Interstate Route 495 divide the region into inner and outer zones, which are connected by numerous "spokes" providing direct access to the airport, port, and intermodal facilities of Boston.
Major highways
editThe principal highways are the concurrent Interstate 93 and U.S. Route 1, which clips the northern edge of the town; parallel north–south State Massachusetts Route 24 (otherwise known as the Fall River Expressway) and Massachusetts Route 28. Massachusetts Route 139 runs east–west through Randolph.
Rail
editCommuter rail service to South Station, Boston, is available on the Middleboro line from the Holbrook/Randolph Rail Station located on the Holbrook/Randolph Town line and Union Street (Route 139). The MBTA Red Line is accessible in Braintree and Quincy.
Bus
editRandolph is a member of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) which provides fixed route service to Quincy Adams, Quincy Center and Ashmont Stations. Randolph is served by Bus 240 from Ashmont Station and the 238 Bus from Quincy Center Station. The MBTA also provides THE RIDE, a paratransit service for the elderly and disabled.
The Brockton Area Transit Authority (BAT) provides bus service to Brockton from Ashmont and vice versa.
Airport
editMost area residents use Logan International Airport for air transportation. Locally, Norwood Memorial Airport is easily accessible; it has two runways, each approximately 4,000 feet (1,200 m) in length.
Government
editRandolph was originally governed by an open town meeting form of government. In an annual town meeting held on March 11, 1947, attendees voted unanimously to adopt a representative town meeting form of government.[26] Under the representative town meeting, the town would be divided into four precincts that would elect 60 town meeting members each.[27] The new form of government went into effect March 7, 1949.[28]
In a special election on April 7, 2009, the town adopted a new charter that became effective in January 2010, changing the town's form of government to a council-manager system.[2][29] The current town manager is Brian P. Howard.[30]
| Town Council Members[31][32] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Title | Name | District | First took office |
| Member-at-Large / President | William Alexopoulos | At-Large | 2010[a][33] |
| Member-at-Large / Vice-President[34] | Richard Brewer, Jr. | At-Large | 2020[b][35][36] |
| Member-at-Large | Jesse A. Gordon | At-Large | 2021[37] |
| Member-at-Large | James F. Burgess, Jr. | At-Large | 2010[c][38][39] |
| Member-at-Large | Ryan Egan | At-Large | 2018 |
| District Councilor | Kevin O'Connell | 1 | 2022 |
| District Councilor | Brandon Thompson | 2 | 2024[40] |
| District Councilor | Katrina Huff-Larmond | 3 | 2018 |
| District Councilor | Christos Alexopoulos | 4 | 2018[41] |
Other Boards & Commissions
edit- Board of Assessors (3 members)
- Board of Health (3 members)
- Planning Board (5 members)
- School Committee (7 members)
School Committee
edit- Lisa Millwood, chair
- Jaime E. Ackles, Vice Chair [42]
- Cheryl Frazier
- Ida Gordon
- Andrea Nixon
- Beverly Roby [43]
- James Burgess, Town Council Rep.
| Registered Voters and Party Enrollment as of February 1, 2023[44] | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Number of Voters | Percentage | |||
| Democratic | 10,146 | 44.33% | |||
| Republican | 1,014 | 4.43% | |||
| Unaffiliated | 11,555 | 50.49% | |||
| Libertarian | 50 | 0.22% | |||
| Total | 22,885 | 100% | |||
Education
editRandolph has a high school serving grades 9–12 (Randolph High School), a middle school serving grades 6, 7, and 8 (Randolph Community Middle School), and four elementary schools serving grades K–5:
- John F. Kennedy Elementary School
- Margaret L. Donovan Elementary School
- Martin E. Young Elementary School
- Elizabeth G. Lyons Elementary School (to be replaced in 2024 by the North Randolph Elementary School)[45]
Pre-elementary education (kindergarten) is provided at the respective home schools, the Charles G. Devine Early Childhood Center having been closed in 2007. As part of the Blue Hills Regional School District, Randolph students entering the ninth grade may opt to attend the Blue Hills Regional Technical School, commonly referred to as "Blue Hills" or the Norfolk County Agricultural High School, known as "Aggie", instead of Randolph High School. The school system is run by the School Committee.
Notable people
editThis section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2024) |
- Ebenezer Alden, physician, biographer, bibliophile
- Rich Amiri, rapper
- Audie Cornish, journalist
- Danny Davis, bandleader and producer
- Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, author
- Bill Kenney, football coach
- Rod Langway, Hall of Fame hockey player
- Robert C. Long, National League Baseball Umpire.
- Gene McAuliffe, baseball player
- Shabazz Napier, NBA player for the Washington Wizards
- Liam O'Donnell, director and film producer
- Jordan Rich, radio talk show host
- William Rimmer, painter & sculptor
- Sergeant Dennis "DJ" Simmonds, Boston Police officer killed at the Boston Marathon bombing
- Mark Snyder, radio host, newspaper columnist & social media new site publisher
- Clinton Sparks, Grammy nominated music producer & hip hop DJ
- Scott D. Tingle, NASA astronaut
- Touré (né Touré Neblett), writer, music journalist, cultural critic, and television personality
Notes
editReferences
edit- ^ "Population and Housing Occupancy Status: 2010 - State -- County Subdivision, 2010 Census Redistricting Data (Public Law 94-171) Summary File". U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved June 26, 2011.[dead link]
- ^ a b "Chapter 2 of the Acts of 2009". Boston: Massachusetts General Court. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
- ^ "Census - Geography Profile: Randolph town, Norfolk County, Massachusetts". Retrieved September 29, 2021.
- ^ "Massachusetts City and Town Incorporation and Settlement Dates". Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. April 7, 2023.
- ^ Temprano, Victor. "Welcome". Native-Land.ca. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
- ^ Beal, John V. (July 1893). "An Address in Commemoration of the One Hundredth Anniversary of the Incorporation of Randolph, Massachusetts". Archived from the original on August 11, 2014.
- ^ Sarna, Jonathan D. (2005). The Jews of Boston, pp.167-168. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10787-6.
- ^ Israel, Sherry (1985). 1985 CJP Demographic Study Archived 2011-07-22 at the Wayback Machine. Combined Jewish Philanthropies of Greater Boston.
- ^ "All About the Event". cancer.org. Archived from the original on November 18, 2006 – via Wayback Machine.
- ^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
- ^ "NOAA Online Weather Data – NWS Boston". National Weather Service. Retrieved October 31, 2024.
- ^ "U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access – Station: Blue Hill COOP, MA". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
- ^ "Blue Hill Observatory daily sunshine data". Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
- ^ "Total Population (P1), 2010 Census Summary File 1". American FactFinder, All County Subdivisions within Massachusetts. United States Census Bureau. 2010.
- ^ "Massachusetts by Place and County Subdivision - GCT-T1. Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "1990 Census of Population, General Population Characteristics: Massachusetts" (PDF). US Census Bureau. December 1990. Table 76: General Characteristics of Persons, Households, and Families: 1990. 1990 CP-1-23. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "1980 Census of the Population, Number of Inhabitants: Massachusetts" (PDF). US Census Bureau. December 1981. Table 4. Populations of County Subdivisions: 1960 to 1980. PC80-1-A23. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "1950 Census of Population" (PDF). Bureau of the Census. 1952. Section 6, Pages 21-10 and 21-11, Massachusetts Table 6. Population of Counties by Minor Civil Divisions: 1930 to 1950. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "1920 Census of Population" (PDF). Bureau of the Census. Number of Inhabitants, by Counties and Minor Civil Divisions. Pages 21-5 through 21-7. Massachusetts Table 2. Population of Counties by Minor Civil Divisions: 1920, 1910, and 1920. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "1890 Census of the Population" (PDF). Department of the Interior, Census Office. Pages 179 through 182. Massachusetts Table 5. Population of States and Territories by Minor Civil Divisions: 1880 and 1890. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "1870 Census of the Population" (PDF). Department of the Interior, Census Office. 1872. Pages 217 through 220. Table IX. Population of Minor Civil Divisions, &c. Massachusetts. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "1860 Census" (PDF). Department of the Interior, Census Office. 1864. Pages 220 through 226. State of Massachusetts Table No. 3. Populations of Cities, Towns, &c. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "1850 Census" (PDF). Department of the Interior, Census Office. 1854. Pages 338 through 393. Populations of Cities, Towns, &c. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "City and Town Population Totals: 2020−2022". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved November 24, 2023.
- ^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
- ^ Town of Randolph (1947). Annual Report. Town Officers and Committees. p. 21. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (1948). Annual Report. Town Officers and Committees. p. 7. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (1949). Annual Report. Town Officers and Committees. pp. 9–20. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ "Randolph council election set for Sept. 15". The Patriot Ledger. April 28, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
- ^ "Town of Randolph, MA – Town Manager". Town of Randolph. Archived from the original on February 3, 2010. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
- ^ "Town of Randolph, MA – Town Council". Town of Randolph. Archived from the original on February 3, 2010. Retrieved January 6, 2016.
- ^ "Town of Randolph, MA – Town Council". Town of Randolph. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
- ^ Town of Randolph (1998). 1998 Annual Report. Boston, MA: Print Promotional Services, Inc. p. 4. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (October 30, 2023). "Meeting Minutes - page 3" (PDF). Retrieved December 8, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (January 27, 2020). "Meeting Minutes - Final". randolph-ma.gov. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (January 13, 2014). "Meeting of the Town council". randolph-ma.gov. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (January 3, 2022). "Inauguration of Town Government Agenda". randolph-ma.gov. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (January 11, 2010). "Meeting of the Town Council". randolph-ma.gov. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (1993). 1993 Annual Report. Hingham, MA: Print Promotional Services, Inc. p. 6.
- ^ Town of Randolph RCTV (January 2, 2024). "Inauguration of Town Government". randolph-ma.gov. Retrieved January 20, 2024.
- ^ Town of Randolph (January 8, 2018). "Meeting Minutes - Final". randolph-ma.gov. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (December 7, 2023). "School Committee Agenda listing chair and vice-chair". randolph-ma.gov. Retrieved December 8, 2023.
- ^ Town of Randolph (January 2, 2024). "Inauguration of Town Government RCTV". randolph-ma.gov. Retrieved January 20, 2024.
- ^ "Registered Voters and Party Enrollment as of February 1, 2023" (PDF). Massachusetts Elections Division. Retrieved April 17, 2023.
- ^ Michelson, Bob. "Randolph councilors narrowly approve new site for Lyons school (Dec. 29, 2020)". The Randolph Journal-Sun. Retrieved August 15, 2024.
External links
edit