Wikipedia

Black women in American politics

(Redirected from African American women in politics)

Black women have been involved in American socio-political issues and advocating for the community since the American Civil War era through organizations, clubs, community-based social services, and advocacy. Black women are currently underrepresented in the United States in both elected offices and in policy made by elected officials.[1] Although data shows that women do not run for office in large numbers when compared to men,[1] Black women have been involved in issues concerning identity, human rights, child welfare, and misogynoir within the political dialogue for decades.

History

edit

Black women's suffrage, voting rights and racism

edit
Further information: African-American women's suffrage movement and Black suffrage in the United States
 
Sojourner Truth (c. 1870)

The U.S. Women’s Rights Movements involved many Black women suffragists who were simultaneously fighting for the abolishment of slavery and women's rights. Formerly enslaved and free Black women like Mary Church Terrell, Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, Harriet Tubman, Mary Ann Shadd Cary, and Maria W. Stewart advocated for their rights by involving themselves in women’s rights gatherings in the 1850s and 1860s.[2] At the time, black women felt sidelined by both black men and white suffragettes who did not consider their plight to gain voting rights an important issue.[3] As a result of this exclusion, black suffragettes were forced to march separately from white suffragette marches, and both Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony largely ignored contributions of black suffragettes.[3]

It was at the 1851 Ohio Women's Convention at Akron that abolitionist and preacher Sojourner Truth gave the speech commonly referred to as, 'Ain't I a Woman?'[4][5] Truth was the only black woman in attendance at the conference and delivered the speech from the steps of the Old Stone Church, on the second day of the convention.[6][7][8] The most widely-circulated version of her speech, titled "Ain't I a Woman," and was transcribed by Frances Dana Barker Gage, a feminist writer and attendee of the convention.[9] This version contained stereotypical speech of Southern Slaves, though Truth was from New York and Jersey Dutch was her first language, and other details that are suspected to be highly exaggerated.[10][11][12][13][14] Both recent historians and the Sojourner Truth Project find a transcribed version by Marcus Robinson, an abolitionist and newspaper editor of the time, to be the most accurate version.[15][16][17] In her speech, Truth demanded equal human rights for all women, not simply white women, as well as the intersection of abolitionism with women's rights. However, as the feminist movement progressed throughout the 20th century, intersectionality was not taken into consideration and the movement largely focused on the plight of white women.[18] Black women would eventually come together to create Womanism. Named after a term coined by Alice Walker, Womanism is based on the history and everyday experiences of Black women.[19][20][21][22]

Though women would obtain the right to vote in the United States in 1920, many women of color still ran into obstacles. Some faced tests that required them to interpret the Constitution in order to vote.[23] Others were threatened with physical violence, false charges, and other extreme danger to prevent voting.[24] Due to these tactics and others that marginalized people of color, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was put into place by President Johnson. It outlawed discriminatory acts to prevent people from voting.[25]

Women and the Black Power movement

edit
Further information: Black Power movement and Black feminism

Despite some of the elements of the Black Power movement included views centered on misogyny,[26] women quickly found a voice in the movement. Black women held leadership positions, ran community-based programs, and fought misogyny.[26] Others also contributed to the grass-roots movement through community service.[27] "In the age of rights, antipoverty, and power campaigns, Black women in community-based and often women-centered organizations, like their female counterparts in nationally known organizations, harnessed and engendered Black Power through their speech and iconography as participants of tenant councils, welfare rights groups, and a Black female religious order."[28]

Women and the 2020 election

edit
 
Stacey Abrams with Nancy Pelosi

One critical factor of the 2020 United States presidential election win was the efforts of Black women and other people of color who helped to energize and register voters across the United States. Stacey Abrams, former Representative of Georgia (2007 to 2017) and minority leader (2011 to 2017), founded both Fair Fight Action and New Georgia Project, organizations focused on addressing voter suppression and voter registration, and is often considered to be one of the key people to encourage voter outreach programs that affected the 2020 election in Georgia.[29] Abrams and other prominent women of color worked for several years registering voters and continued to register more than 800,000 new voters in the time leading up to the 2020 election.[30] While Georgia went to Donald Trump during the 2016 election, fueled by a mostly white, Republican electorate, Abrams and her cohorts chose to focus on persuading apathetic voters of color that their votes did matter rather than focusing on undecided white voters.[31] As a result of these efforts as well as changing ideology in white voters, Georgia went to Democrats during the 2020 election, the first time the state went blue since 1992.[32][33] Abrams was also the first Black woman to deliver a response to the State of the Union address. In 2020, more than two-thirds of black women had "turned out to vote in the 2020 presidential election." This was in fact "the third highest rate of any race-gender group."[34] However, this increase in voting did see a decrease in the percentage of black women who voted Democrat, with a 4% decrease of the number of black women voting for the democratic presidential candidate from 2016.[citation needed] Despite this, the democratic candidate, Joe Biden, still won the election.

Political representation

edit

Black women have been underrepresented in politics within the United States, but numbers continue to increase. In 2011, according to the Center for American Women and Politics at Rutgers University, 13 Black women served in the 112th Congress with 239 state legislators serving nationwide.[35] In 2021, as stated by the Center for American Women and Politics at Rutgers University, 27 Black women will serve in the 117th Congress, doubling the number of Black women to serve in 2011.[36] In 2014, Mia Love was the first black woman to be elected to Congress for the Republican Party.[37] The paths to public office for women in the Black community have differed from men and other groups, such as women's organizations,[38] rallies, and fundraisers.

State, county and local government

edit

Of the total 311 statewide elective executives, 6 are Black women. Of the over 20,000 elected county and local officials less than 8% are Black women with Stephanie Summerow Dumas elected in 2018 as the first Black woman county commissioner in the history of Ohio. April 3, 1973, Lelia Foley became the first Black woman elected mayor in the United States. In 1974, Oklahoma named Foley Outstanding Woman of the Year.[39] In 2021, according to Women of Color in Elective Office, Black women work in state legislative leadership in 42 states of the United States, except Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Vermont."[40]

United States House of Representatives

edit

Overall, 19 states, including the U.S. Virgin Islands and the District of Columbia, have elected a Black woman to represent them in the U.S. House. There are currently 42 Black female representatives and three Black female delegates in the United States House of Representatives. Most are members of the Congressional Black Caucus. The first Black woman to serve as a representative was Shirley Chisholm from New York's 12th congressional district in 1969 during the Civil Rights Movement.[41]

United States Senate

edit
 
Carol Moseley Braun was the first African-American woman elected to the U.S. Senate, 1993
 
Laphonza Butler is the first Black LGBT person to serve in the U.S. Senate, 2023

Kamala Harris was the first African-American U.S. senator to be elected vice president of the United States. Black women in the United States Senate are underrepresented twofold: the United States Senate has had ten Black elected or appointed office holders and only three Black female senators.[42] Despite this, Black women are increasingly running and being elected or appointed to offices.

In 1993, Carol Moseley Braun became the first Black woman to be elected to the United States Senate, and the only female senator from Illinois. Braun served from 1993 to 1999, only one term.[43] Braun's shock at Democratic incumbent senator Alan Dixon's vote to confirm Clarence Thomas after his 1991 sexual harassment scandal motivated her successful primary campaign against Dixon.[citation needed] Shortly after being elected, Braun took a one-woman stand against the United Daughters of the Confederacy's renewal of patent for the Confederate flag as their insignia.[44] Though Braun considered it a non-issue, she was still puzzled: "Who would have expected a design patent for the Confederate flag?"[45] Incredibly, Braun was able to sway the Senate vote against renewal of the patent. The United Daughters of the Confederacy no longer uses the confederate flag as their insignia.

In 2017 Kamala Harris began serving as the junior United States senator from California and was the second African American woman elected to the U.S. Senate in American history. In 2004, she was elected the 27th District Attorney of San Francisco and served from 2004 to 2011. During that time, Harris created a unit to tackle environmental crimes[46] and a Hate Crimes Unit that focused on hate crimes committed against LGBT youth in schools.[47] In 2010, Harris won the election as California's Attorney General by less than 1 point and about 50,000 votes. She was then re-elected in 2014 by a wide margin. Three decades have passed since Carol Moseley Braun was a Black female senator, and Kamala Harris is one of only two Black women to serve as senator.[48]

Harris has a strong record of bipartisan cooperation with her Republican colleagues, having introduced a multitude of bills with Republican co-sponsors, including a bail reform bill with Senator Rand Paul,[49] an election security bill with Senator James Lankford,[50] and a workplace harassment bill with Senator Lisa Murkowski.[51] Senate Judiciary Chairman Lindsey Graham said of Harris: "She's hard-nosed. She's smart. She's tough."[52] Harris resigned from serving the state of California as a U.S. Senator on January 18, 2021, two days before she was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States. She would become the first female and first African-American Vice President of the United States Senate. As of the 2022 midterm elections, there are no Black women in the United States Senate.[53] On October 1, 2023, labor union official Laphonza Butler was chosen to fill the Senate seat left vacant by Dianne Feinstein's death.[54][55] Butler became the first openly LGBT member of the U.S. Senate from California and its first black LGBT member, and was sworn in on October 3, 2023.[56][57]

Cabinet, executive departments, and agencies

edit
 
Patricia Roberts Harris was the first African American woman ever to serve in a presidential cabinet, as well as first to be United States ambassador.[58][59][60][61]

The United States Cabinet has had six Black female officers. Patricia Roberts Harris was the first Black woman to serve in the Cabinet; she was appointed Secretary of Housing and Urban Development in 1977 by President Jimmy Carter. Hazel R. O'Leary became the second Black woman to serve in the Cabinet during the Clinton administration as Secretary of Energy. Alexis Herman was the first Black woman to serve as the Secretary of Labor during the tenure of President Bill Clinton after serving as the Director of the Women's Bureau under President Jimmy Carter from 1977 to 1981.[62] She was the youngest person to ever serve as the Director of the Women's Bureau, at the age of 29 years old.[62]

Condoleezza Rice was appointed Secretary of State in 2005 under the Bush administration, and thus became the first Black woman to serve as Secretary of State as well as the first in history to be the highest-ranking woman in the United States presidential line of succession.[63] Rice also became the first woman to serve as the National Security Advisor.

Loretta Lynch served as the 83rd attorney general of the United States from 2015 to 2017 during the Obama administration. Lynch succeeded Eric Holder and had previously served as the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of New York under both Presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama. On November 8, 2014, President Barack Obama nominated Lynch for the position of U.S. Attorney General, to succeed Eric Holder. Her nomination process was one of the longest in the history of the United States, taking 166 days after she was first nominated for the post.[64] She was confirmed by the Senate Judiciary Committee on February 26, 2015, and approved by the Senate in a 56–43 vote,[65] thereby becoming the first Black woman to hold this office.[66][67] She was sworn in by Vice President Joe Biden on April 27, 2015.[68]

Another Obama administration appointee, Susan Rice, served as a foreign policy aide to Michael Dukakis during the 1988 United States presidential election and in the Clinton administration in various capacities. Rice served as National Security Advisor in the Obama administration from 2013 to 2017, and helped with U.S. efforts on the Iran nuclear deal of 2015 and the Paris Agreement on climate change. Rice's name was also floated as a potential vice-presidential running mate to Biden in 2020; however, Senator Kamala Harris was officially announced as Biden's running mate in August 2020.[69] Rice was later appointed as Director of the Domestic Policy Council under President Biden.[70]

Democratic Congresswoman Marcia Fudge was selected by President Joe Biden to serve as secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the first Black woman since Patricia Roberts Harris.[71] Fudge initially lobbied for agriculture secretary, noting her legislative background in food and nutrition programs would make her a "natural fit." She also noted that prior Democratic administrations had relegated Black people to specific "urban" cabinet positions, saying that "we want to put the Black person in Labor or HUD."[72] The agriculture secretary role ultimately went to Tom Vilsack, a white man who had served in the same role during the Obama administration.

Supreme Court

edit
See also: Ketanji Brown Jackson

Vice presidents

edit
 
Official portrait of Vice President Kamala Harris, 2021

On August 11, 2020, then-presumed Democratic party presidential nominee Joe Biden announced that he had chosen Harris as a running mate. On August 19, 2020 Harris became the third female U.S. vice presidential nominee of a major party, after Geraldine Ferraro and Sarah Palin. She is also the first African-American to be nominated by a major U.S. political party for the candidacy of Vice President. Harris became the running mate alongside former vice president Biden as Democratic nominee for the 2020 election.[73]

On November 7, 2020, CNN and other news outlets announced President Joe Biden's victory with Trump having no possible path to presidency based on electoral votes. The win made Kamala Harris the first Black woman and first Indian American to win an election as a vice presidential candidate in the history of the United States.[74] Harris was sworn in on January 20, 2021 becoming the first female, first African American and first Asian American vice president in U.S. history.[75] Harris would later become the first female to serve as Acting President of the United States.

Presidential campaigns

edit
 
Shirley Chisholm ran for president of the United States in 1972.

Though Black women have run for presidential nomination in several campaigns, many have been labeled as "non-viable" due partly to their party affiliations, i.e., Charlene Mitchell in 1968 for the Communist Party USA, Lenora Fulani in 1988 for the New Alliance Party, and Cynthia McKinney in 2008 for the Green Party. Shirley Chisholm ran as both the "Black candidate" and the "woman candidate" in the 1972 presidential campaign and "found herself shunned by leaders from the political establishments she helped to found—the Congressional Black Caucus and the National Women's Political Caucus."[76] Still, Chisholm was able to gain 151 votes at the Democratic National Convention, despite missing the presidential nomination.[76] This has led to there being not one black woman who has been the president of the United States.

Although the office of the First Lady of the United States is not a political office, Michelle Obama, the first Black First Lady, has made an impact on women in the 21st century. Obama became first Lady of the United States in 2009, when her husband, Barack Obama, took office as President of the United States. Michelle Obama has donated her services to soup kitchens, homeless shelters, and other urban social services,[77] but she eventually found her niche in childhood obesity. Ms. Obama created Let's Move![78] in an effort to reduce childhood obesity around the nation.[79]

On January 21, 2019, Kamala Harris, junior United States Senator from California, officially announced her candidacy for President of the United States in the 2020 United States presidential election.[80] Over an estimated 20,000 people attended her formal campaign launch event in her hometown of Oakland, California.[81]

While Harris initially had high numbers over several of her opponents, she fell in the polls following the second presidential debate.[82][83] On December 3, 2019, Harris withdrew from seeking the 2020 Democratic presidential nomination, despite having been considered a potential front runner initially for the 2020 Democratic nomination for President.[84][85]

Kamala Harris was the Democratic Nominee for the 2024 United States presidential election, losing the election to Donald Trump. If elected, she would haven been the first woman to serve as President of the United States.

Misogynoir in politics

edit

Misogynoir is misogyny directed towards Black women where race and gender both play roles in bias. The term was coined by queer Black feminist Moya Bailey and was created to tackle the misogyny directed toward Black women in American visual and popular culture as well as in politics. In the U.S. political sphere, misogynoir has led to the lack of Black women in politics. The number of Black elected officials has increased since 1965, however Black people remain underrepresented at all levels of government. Black women make up less than 3% of U.S. representatives and there were no Black women in the U.S. Senate as late as 2007.[86]

In comparison to Black men, Black women tend to be more active participants in the electoral process and this could lead to more potential for Black women to equal or surpass Black men in the number of elected officials within their race.[87] However, because of issues of both race and gender it has been much harder for Black women to rise in the political sphere. Discrimination against Black women also makes them significantly more likely to experience the Glass Cliff phenomenon.[88] When fighting for equal voting rights, Black women have found that they are often surrounded by sexist men who did not want them to rise in power, as well as racist white women who did not consider them to be equals.[89]

Misogynoir and birtherism in the 2020 presidential campaign

edit

Before and after Vice President Kamala Harris was announced as 2020 Democratic nominee Biden's running mate, she became the subject of unsubstantiated claims regarding her eligibility to serve as both president and vice president.[90][91][92] The claim that Vice President Harris was not born in the United States, therefore not a natural citizen, was made by far-right conspiracy theorist, fraudster, and internet troll[104] Jacob Wohl on January 22, 2019 on Twitter.[105] Later that same day, his tweet was labeled false by PolitiFact.[106] Numerous fact-check articles evaluated the claim as false and stated that Harris was a natural-born citizen as required by the Constitution in order for her to serve.[107][108] This was something that another black presidential candidate, Barack Obama, had been accused by Donald Trump of having an illegitimate birth certificate. Trump rescinded his comments before the 2016 United States presidential election, but later doubled down on them after winning.[109]

An opinion piece was published in Newsweek shortly after Biden's announcement titled, "Some Questions for Kamala Harris About Eligibility". The piece disputed the current common interpretation of birthright citizenship under the United States v. Wong Kim Ark and wrote that "under the 14th Amendment as originally understood", if Harris' parents were not citizens or permanent residents of the United States at the time of her birth, she could not be considered a citizen of the United States, and therefore would be ineligible to serve as vice president.[110] After receiving a strong backlash to the article, Newsweek added a preceding editor's note and published an opposing argument, authored by Eugene Volokh, a legal scholar at the UCLA School of Law.[111] Newsweek later replaced the editor's note with a formal apology, writing

This op-ed is being used by some as a tool to perpetuate racism and xenophobia. We apologize. We entirely failed to anticipate the ways in which the essay would be interpreted, distorted and weaponized. The op-ed was never intended to spark or to take part in the racist lie of Birtherism, the conspiracy theory aimed at delegitimizing Barack Obama, but we should have recognized the potential, even probability, that that could happen.[112][110]

Then-President Donald Trump commented at the time, "I heard it today that she doesn't meet the requirements. I have no idea if that's right. I would have thought, I would have assumed, that the Democrats would have checked that out before she gets chosen to run for vice president."[113][114][115]

Similar accusations were made of 44th president Barack Obama during his 2008 presidential campaign and throughout his presidency. There was extensive public questioning of Obama's religion, birthplace, and citizenship. This eventually came to be termed as the 'birther movement',[116] by which it was widely referred across media.[117][118][119][120][121][122][123] Even after the Obama campaign released his birth certificate, birther claims remained and followed Obama throughout and after his presidency.[124][125]

Goldie Taylor, a commentator for the news site The Grio, characterized the demand that Obama provide his birth certificate as an equivalent of making him "show his papers", as Black people were once required to do under Jim Crow laws.[126] Taylor also commented on the renewed birtherism targeted against Harris:

Today, black women are the dominant force—if not the deciding factor—in national Democratic politics. Our rise exposes and jeopardizes their white privilege—which one does not lose based on ideology. (...) Just as Barack Obama was and continues to be assailed by some of the left's most prominent voices, Harris will face more of the same. It appears virulent misogyny is not beneath them.[105]

Harris has also been attacked for her ethnic heritage.[127] Harris' father, Donald Harris, is a Jamaican-American economist and professor emeritus at Stanford University, while her mother, Shyamala Gopalan, was an Indian American biomedical scientist, born in British India. While Vice President Harris has long identified as both Black and Indian, some people have criticized Harris for identifying as Black, conflating ethnicity and skin color. In an article published by Reuters, the matter was addressed through fact check on August 21, 2020:

Throughout her political career, the media has used many terms, including Black, South Asian, and African American, to describe Harris.[128]

Reuters also fact-checked rumors circulating on Facebook that an image of Harris's birth certificate identified her as "Caucasian", which was ruled as false by the news agency.[129]

Arrest of Georgia Representative Park Cannon

edit

On March 25, 2021, Governor Brian Kemp signed a controversial voting bill into law, which was strongly criticized by lawmakers on the left, including President Biden, who said the Georgia law would disenfranchise voters of color.[130] As Governor Kemp held the signing ceremony, Representative Park Cannon of the 58th district knocked on the Governor's office doors in an attempt to join the meeting. The Georgia State Patrol officers who stood guard outside the doors asked her twice to stop knocking.[131] Officers then handcuffed Cannon and charged her with felony obstruction and "preventing or disrupting General Assembly sessions or other meetings of members"[132] because she "knowingly and intentionally did by knocking the governor's door during session of singing [sic] a bill."[131] Cannon's arrest affidavit for the felony obstruction charge also stated that she was violent toward the officers as they removed her from the premises.[131] The incident was captured on video by onlookers and sparked a public backlash toward the officers and Georgian Republican lawmakers as videos of the arrest were distributed to the press and social media accounts.[133]

Constituents began protest in support of Cannon[134] and her arrest was cited by some media outlets to be unconstitutional based on the Georgian state constitution.[135] The state constitution reads that legislators are “free from arrest during sessions of the General Assembly” except for charges of treason, felonies or breach of the peace.[135]

Cannon later wrote on social media website Twitter, “I am not the first Georgian to be arrested for fighting voter suppression. I’d love to say I’m the last, but we know that isn’t true.”[136]

Senator Raphael Warnock visited Cannon's home and commented on the incident, “We are witnessing right now, a kind of wrestling in the soul of Georgia. Will we go forward or will we go backwards? We will not allow a few politicians, in their craven lust for power, to take us back.”[137]

The incident sparked significant backlash toward both the officers, Georgian Republican lawmakers, and a public outcry throughout the nation.[133][138] Fulton County, Georgia District Attorney Fani Willis, declined to prosecute Cannon, stating:[139]

While some of Representative Cannon’s colleagues and the police officers involved may have found her behavior annoying, such sentiment does not justify a presentment to a grand jury of the allegations in the arrest warrants or any other felony charges.

The arresting officer stated that he was concerned about an insurrection similar to the one on January 6, 2021 at the U.S. Capitol and felt that if he hadn't taken action, “other protesters would have been emboldened to commit similar acts.”[139]

Organizations

edit
Further information: Category:African-American women's organizations
 
The National Council of Negro Women, located at 633 Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C., exists today as a non-profit organization.

A number of organizations supporting Black women have historically played an important role in politics.[140] The National Association of Colored Women (NACW), founded in 1896 by Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Mary Church Terrell, is one of the oldest political groups created for and by Black women. Among its objectives were equal rights,[141] eliminating lynching, and defeating Jim Crow laws. Another organization, the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW), was founded in 1935 by civil rights activist Mary McLeod Bethune and was more involved in Black political matters with the aim to improve the quality of life for Black women and their families. NCNW still exists today as a non-profit organization reaching out through research, advocacy, and social services in the United States and Africa.

In 1946, Mary Fair Burks founded the Women's Political Council (WPC) as a response to discrimination in the Montgomery League of Women Voters, who refused to allow Black women to join.[142] The WPC sought to improve social services for the Black community and is famously known for instigating the Montgomery bus boycott.[143]

In the 1970s, the National Black Feminist Organization (NBFO) sought to address issues unique to Black women such as racism, sexism, and classism. Though in previous years feminism and suffrage had been considered a white women's fight, NBFO "refused to make Black women choose between being Black and being female."[144] Margaret Sloan-Hunter, one of its founders, went on to help found Ms. Magazine, a magazine focusing on a feminist take on news issues. Though the organization had disintegrated by 1977, another organization, which formed just a year after the NBFO in 1974, turned out to be one of the most important Black feminist organizations of our time. Combahee River Collective was founded by Black feminist and lesbian, Barbara Smith, and described themselves as a "collective of Black feminists [...] involved in the process of defining and clarifying our politics, while [...] doing political work within our own group and in coalition with other progressive organizations and movements."[145] Perhaps the most notable piece to come out of the Combahee River Collective was the Combahee River Collective Statement, which helped to expand on ideas about identity politics.[146]

In 2014, political activist and women's rights leader Leslie Wimes founded the Democratic African-American Woman's Caucus (DAAWC) in Florida. She enlisted the help of Wendy Sejour and El Portal mayor Daisy Black to help Black women in the state of Florida have a voice.[147] In the last two presidential elections, the turnout percentage of Black women was greater than all other demographic groups, yet has not translated into more Black women in office nor political power for Black women. Virginia Governor Terry McAuliffe credits Black women for his win in the state.[148] Black women-owned businesses are the fastest growing segment of the women owned business market.[149] The DAAWC seeks to increase the number of elected Black women on the State and Federal levels, as well as focus on issues specific to Black women. While the DAAWC begins in the state of Florida, the organization is hoping to expand to other states to mobilize the political power of Black women.

Assata's Daughters was founded in March 2015 by Page May in order to protest against the lack of response to Eric Garner's death.[150][151] Centered in Chicago, Assata's Daughters is named after controversial Black Panther Party and Black Liberation Army member Assata Shakur.[152][153][154] The organization is part of a cluster of Black activist organizations known as the Movement for Black Lives.[150] Assata's Daughters has worked to speak out against police militarization, immigrant deportation, the Dakota Access Pipeline, and President Donald Trump.

Socio-political movements

edit

20th century

edit

Civil rights

edit

The civil rights movement in the United States was a decades-long struggle by Black Americans to end legalized racial discrimination, disenfranchisement and racial segregation in the United States. The social movement's major nonviolent resistance campaigns eventually secured new protections in federal law for the human rights of all Americans. During this time women had very few opportunities for leadership positions within the movement, leaving them to tend to informal leadership or supportive roles in the background.[155] Still, some women made an impact in the movement, such as Coretta Scott King, Dorothy Height, and Septima Clark.

 
Coretta Scott King in Manhattan Central Park just after the assassination of Dr. King.

Coretta Scott King, wife of Martin Luther King Jr., was an active advocate for racial equality, she was a leader for the Civil rights movement in the 1960s. King played a prominent role in the years after her husband's assassination in 1968 when she took on the leadership of the struggle for racial equality herself and became active in the Women's Movement. Coretta Scott King founded the King Center and sought to make her husband's birthday a national holiday. She later broadened her scope to include both advocacy for LGBT rights and opposition to apartheid. She was inducted into the Alabama Women's Hall of Fame, the National Women's Hall of Fame, and was the first Black person to lie in repose the Georgia State Capitol.[156] King has been referred to as "First Lady of the Civil Rights Movement".[157]

 
Dorothy Height presents Eleanor Roosevelt with the Mary McLeod Bethune Human Rights Award, 12 Nov 1960

Dorothy Height is credited as the first leader during the civil rights movement to recognize inequality for both Black people and women of any color concurrently and was the president of the National Council of Negro Women for forty years.[158][159] Height started working as a caseworker with the New York City Welfare Department, and at the age of 25, she began a career as a civil rights activist and joined the National Council of Negro Women. During the Civil Rights Movement, Height organized "Wednesdays in Mississippi,"[160] which brought together both Black and white women from the North and South to create a dialogue of understanding. She fought for equal rights for both Black people and women of all races. Height was one of the only known women to partake in the organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.[158] Upon working with Martin Luther King Jr., Height stated that King had once told her that Height was responsible for making The NAACP look acceptable during difficult times in the movement.[161] In his autobiography, civil rights leader James Farmer described Height as one of the "Big Six" of the Civil Rights Movement as behind the scenes and sharing the podium with Dr. King, but noted that her role was frequently ignored by the press due to sexism.[162] Height was also a founding member of the Council for United Civil Rights Leadership.

Septima Clark is most known for establishing "Citizenship Schools" that taught reading to adults throughout the Deep South.[163] These schools played an important role in the drive for voting rights and civil rights for Black people in the Civil Rights Movement and served as a means to empower Black communities.[164] Clark's goals for the schools were to provide self-pride, cultural-pride, literacy, and a sense of one's citizenship rights. Teaching reading literacy helped countless Black southerners push for the right to vote and developed future leaders across the country.[165] The citizenship schools were also seen as a form of support to Martin Luther King Jr. in the nonviolent Civil Rights Movement.[163] Clark became known as the "Queen mother" or "Grandmother" of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States,[166] and Martin Luther King Jr. commonly referred to Clark as "The Mother of the Movement".[167]

Abolition of police departments

edit
Further information: Defund the police

Since the 1960s, municipal governments have increasingly spent larger portions of their budgets on law enforcement than social and rehabilitation services. Ideas to reallocate funds from law enforcement to social services were not novel in the 1960s. In 1935, W. E. B. Dubois wrote about "abolition-democracy," in his book, Black Reconstruction in America.[168] Activists such as Angela Davis also advocated for the defunding or abolition of police departments throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.[169][170]

Modern movements

edit

#MeToo

edit
 
Tarana Burke at the 2018 Disobedience Awards.

In 2006, social activist and community organizer Tarana Burke began using the phrase "Me Too" on the Myspace social network. Burke's original intention of "Me Too" was to empower women through empathy and solidarity, especially the young and vulnerable, by visibly demonstrating how many women have survived sexual assault and harassment, especially in the workplace.[171] It wasn't until October 2017 during the midst of widespread exposure of accusations of predatory behavior by Harvey Weinstein, that awareness rose after actress Alyssa Milano encouraged the use of the phrase as a hashtag.[172] Her intent was for social media to help reveal the extent of problems with sexual harassment and assault.[172] The day after Milano tweeted the hashtag, she wrote: "I was just made aware of an earlier #MeToo movement, and the origin story is equal parts heartbreaking and inspiring", crediting and linking to Burke.[171][173][174] Burke said she was inspired to use the phrase after her lack of response to a 13-year-old girl who confided to her that she had been sexually assaulted. She said she wishes she had simply told the girl: "Me too".[171]

A number of high-profile posts and responses from American celebrities soon followed, and the movement exposed several high-profile men of systematic sexual abuse, such as Bill Cosby, Kevin Spacey, Harvey Weinstein, Matt Lauer. Another notable exposal included R. Kelly.

Me Too has received criticism from people who have cited reasons such as it not having due process, victims coming out too late, and "going too far in labeling things," while also using it as a reason for them to not include women in their own activities for fear of being punished and getting in trouble.[175][176]

The criticisms have been the vocal minority however, as "More than twice as many Americans support rather than oppose the #MeToo movement."

Black Lives Matter

edit
 
Patrisse Cullors

Black Lives Matter was co-founded by three Black community organizers: Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi.[177][178] The movement began with the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter on social media platform Twitter after frustration over George Zimmerman's acquittal in the shooting of 17-year-old African-American Trayvon Martin in 2013.[179] Garza wrote a Facebook post titled, "A Love Note to Black People" in which she said: "Our Lives Matter, Black Lives Matter".[180] Cullors then created the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter to corroborate Garza's use of the phrase.[179] Tometi added her support, and Black Lives Matter was borne as an online campaign.[180] In particular, the movement was borne and Garza's post became popularized after protests emerged in Ferguson, Missouri, where an unarmed Black teenager was shot and killed by a white police officer.[181]

Cullors has acknowledged social media as responsible in exposing violence against Black Americans, saying: "On a daily basis, every moment, Black folks are being bombarded with images of our death ... It's literally saying, 'Black people, you might be next. You will be next, but in hindsight it will be better for our nation, the less of our kind, the more safe it will be."[182]

Garza does not think of the Black Lives Matter movement as something created by any one person. She feels her work is only a continuation of the continued historical resistance led by Black people in America.[183] The movement and Garza are credited for popularizing the use of the internet for mass mobilization between activists in different physical locations; a practice called "mediated mobilization," which has since been used by other movements such as the #MeToo movement.[184][185]

#SayHerName
edit

Women from within the Black Lives Matter movement, including Ohio State University professor and civil rights advocate Treva Lindsey, have argued that Black Lives Matter has sidelined Black women's experiences in favor of those of Black men. For example, more demonstrations have been organized to protest the killings of both Michael Brown and Trayvon Martin than the killings of either Kayla Moore or Rekia Boyd.[186] In response, #SayHerName is a movement founded in 2015 to focus specifically on the police-related killings of Black women and to bring their names into the Black Lives Matter protest. The stated goal is to offer a more complete, but not competing, narrative with the overall Black Lives Matter movement.[187][188] With the shooting of Breonna Taylor by police in her bed as she slept on March 13, 2020, #SayHerName has become even more prominent.

Activists

edit

19th century

edit

20th century

edit

21st century

edit

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b Hooper, Cindy (2012). Conflict: African American Women and the New Dilemma of Race and Gender Politics. California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 44–45.
  2. ^ "African American Women and the Nineteenth Amendment". Archived from the original on May 9, 2019.
  3. ^ a b "Between Two Worlds: Black Women and the Fight for Voting Rights (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved January 31, 2022.
  4. ^ Falls, Mailing Address: 136 Fall Street Seneca; Us, NY 13148 Phone:568-0024 Contact. "Sojourner Truth - Women's Rights National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved July 3, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ "WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE". Encyclopedia of Cleveland History | Case Western Reserve University. June 9, 2021. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  6. ^ Logan, Shirley Wilson (1995). With Pen and Voice: A Critical Anthology of Nineteenth-century African-American Women. SIU Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-1875-9.
  7. ^ "Sojourner Truth statue to honor Akron's role in women's suffrage movement". spectrumnews1.com. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  8. ^ "The proceedings of the Woman's Rights Convention, held at Akron, Ohio, May 28 and 29, 1851". Library of Congress. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  9. ^ Painter, Nell Irvin (1994). "Representing Truth: Sojourner Truth's Knowing and Becoming Known". The Journal of American History. 81 (2): 461–492. doi:10.2307/2081168. ISSN 0021-8723. JSTOR 2081168.
  10. ^ Murphy, Larry (2001), Sojourner Truth: A Biography, Greenwood, p. xiv, ISBN 978-0-313-35728-2
  11. ^ Brezina, Corona (2005). Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" Speech: A Primary Source Investigation. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 29. ISBN 9781404201545.
  12. ^ "Sojourner Truth Page". American Suffragist Movement. Archived from the original on 29 December 2006. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
  13. ^ "Sojourner Truth Page". Fordham University. Archived from the original on 13 January 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2006.
  14. ^ The Narrative of Sojourner Truth by Olive Gilbert and Sojourner Truth. March 1999. Archived from the original on 24 September 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2016 – via Project Gutenberg.
  15. ^ National Women's History Museum (January 24, 2019). "Sojourner Truth". Archived from the original on April 14, 2019.
  16. ^ "Compare the Speeches". The Sojourner Truth Project. Retrieved November 30, 2020.
  17. ^ Painter, Nell Irvin (1997). Sojourner Truth: A Life, A Symbol. W. W. Norton.
  18. ^ KING, MAE C. (1975). "Oppression and Power: The Unique Status of the Black Woman in the American Political System". Social Science Quarterly. 56 (1): 116–128. ISSN 0038-4941. JSTOR 42859475.
  19. ^ Phillips 2006, p. xix, "Introduction. Womanism: On Its Own".
  20. ^ "Womanism". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
  21. ^ Walker, Alice (1981). "Coming Apart". You Can't Keep a Good Woman Down. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  22. ^ Phillips, Layli (2006). The Womanist Reader. New York and Abingdon: Routledge.
  23. ^ Terborg-Penn, R (1998). African American women in the struggle for the vote:1850–1920. Bloomington,IN: Indiana University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-253-33378-0. OCLC 260107480.
  24. ^ Prescod, M. (1997). Shining in the Dark: Black Women and the Struggle for the Vote, 1955–1965. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-0-585-08352-0.
  25. ^ "Voting Rights Act (1965)". National Archives. October 6, 2021. Retrieved October 8, 2024.
  26. ^ a b Williams, R.Y. (2008). "Black Women and Black Power". OAH Magazine of History. 22 (3): 22–26. doi:10.1093/maghis/22.3.22.
  27. ^ Ogbonna, J. (2005), Black power: radical politics and African American identity, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ Press, p. 105
  28. ^ Williams, R.Y. (2006). Black women, urban politics, and engendering black power. In P.E. Joseph (Ed.), The black power movement: Rethinking the civil rights-black power era. New York: Routledge. p.79-103.
  29. ^ "Will Stacey Abrams have more of an impact on the 2020 election from the sidelines?". ABC News. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
  30. ^ King, Maya. "How Stacey Abrams and her band of believers turned Georgia blue". POLITICO. Retrieved November 9, 2020.
  31. ^ Brown, Matthew. "Georgia solidifies its swing-state status thanks, in part, to Stacey Abrams". USA Today. Retrieved November 9, 2020.
  32. ^ "How Black Lives Matter Could Reshape the 2020 Elections". Time. Retrieved October 7, 2020.
  33. ^ Parker, Kim; Horowitz, Juliana Menasce; Anderson, Monica (June 12, 2020). "Majorities Across Racial, Ethnic Groups Express Support for the Black Lives Matter Movement". Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project. Retrieved July 16, 2020.
  34. ^ Schnall, Marianne. "New Report On The State Of Black Women In American Politics Highlights Both Progress And Untapped Potential". Forbes. Retrieved February 27, 2023.
  35. ^ "Facts about women of color in elective office". Rutgers, New Jersey: Center for American Women and Politics. 2010. Archived from the original on September 28, 2011. Retrieved July 24, 2011.
  36. ^ "By the Numbers: Black Women in the 117th Congress" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 3, 2021.
  37. ^ Wineinger, Catherine (May 27, 2021). "How can a black woman be a Republican? An intersectional analysis of identity claims in the 2014 Mia Love campaign". Politics, Groups, and Identities. 9 (3): 566–588. doi:10.1080/21565503.2019.1629316. ISSN 2156-5503. S2CID 198015374.
  38. ^ Rosenthal, C.S. (1998). "Determinants of collaborative leadership: civic engagement, gender or organizational norms?". Political Research Quarterly. 51 (4): 847–868. doi:10.1177/106591299805100401. hdl:11244/25274. S2CID 60364127.
  39. ^ "Former Taft Mayor to Be Honored". The Daily Oklahoman. February 22, 1994. p. 17. Archived from the original on November 18, 2018. Retrieved November 18, 2018.
  40. ^ "Women of Color in Elective Office". Archived from the original on January 15, 2021.
  41. ^ Freeman, Jo (February 2005). "Shirley Chisholm's 1972 Presidential Campaign". University of Illinois at Chicago Women's History Project. Archived from the original on November 11, 2014.
  42. ^ Karimi, Faith (January 25, 2021). "In the nearly 232-year history of the US Senate there have only been 11 Black senators". CNN. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021.
  43. ^ McCain, L. (1997), African American women in congress: forming and transforming history, New Jersey: Rutgers Univ Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-2353-8
  44. ^ Clay, J. (2000), Rebels in law: voices in history of black women lawyers, Michigan: Univ of Michigan Press, p. 152, ISBN 978-0-472-08646-7
  45. ^ "SAN FRANCISCO / D.A. creates environmental unit / 3-staff team takes on crime mostly affecting the poor". San Francisco Chronicle. June 1, 2005. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
  46. ^ "Marriage Equality". Kamalaharris.org. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved November 18, 2010.
  47. ^ Karini, Faith (January 25, 2021). "In the nearly 232-year history of the US Senate there have only been 11 Black senators". CNN. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021.
  48. ^ "Rand Paul and Kamala Harris Team Up to Reform Bail Practices". NBC News. September 10, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2019.
  49. ^ "Lawmakers gather behind election security bill — at last". Politico. Retrieved April 27, 2019.
  50. ^ "Two Women Senators Will Introduce A New Bill About Workplace Harassment". BuzzFeedNews. June 5, 2018. Retrieved April 27, 2019.
  51. ^ "'She's tough': Lindsey Graham says Kamala Harris is likely Biden's vice presidential pick". MSN. Retrieved May 28, 2020.
  52. ^ Quarshie, Mabinty (November 9, 2022). "Despite historic campaigns, no Black women won Senate or governor races in 2022 midterms". USA Today. Retrieved December 28, 2022.
  53. ^ Cadelago, Christopher (October 1, 2023). "Newsom picks Laphonza Butler as Feinstein replacement". Politico. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved October 2, 2023.
  54. ^ Rosenhall, Laurel; Mehta, Seema (October 1, 2023). "Newsom taps Laphonza Butler for Feinstein's Senate seat". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
  55. ^ Reston, Maeve; Pager, Tyler (October 2, 2023). "Newsom taps Emily's List leader to fill Feinstein's Senate seat". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved October 2, 2023.
  56. ^ Rubin, April (October 3, 2023). "California Sen. Laphonza Butler sworn in, marking historic first". Axios. Retrieved October 3, 2023.
  57. ^ "A Higher Standard: Patricia Roberts Harris". National Museum of African American History and Culture. November 8, 2010. Retrieved February 19, 2021.
  58. ^ "Patricia Roberts Harris | American public official". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved February 19, 2021.
  59. ^ DeLaat, Jacqueline (2000). "Harris, Patricia Roberts". Women in World History, Vol. 7: Harr-I. Waterford, CT: Yorkin Publications. pp. 14–17. ISBN 0-7876-4066-2.
  60. ^ US State Department. "Patricia Roberts Harris: Ambassador - National Museum of American Diplomacy". Retrieved February 19, 2021.
  61. ^ a b "Hall of Secretaries: Alexis M. Herman". Archived from the original on December 21, 2016.
  62. ^ "Condoleezza Rice". White House. Retrieved November 14, 2008.
  63. ^ "Senate Confirms Loretta Lynch as Attorney General 166 Days After Nomination". ABC news. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
  64. ^ Athena Jones, "Loretta Lynch makes history", CNN, April 23, 2015.
  65. ^ "Loretta Lynch, Federal Prosecutor, Will Be Nominated for Attorney General". The New York Times. November 7, 2014. Retrieved November 7, 2014.
  66. ^ "Obama picks NY prosecutor Lynch to be next attorney general", Yahoo! News, November 8, 2014. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
  67. ^ Apuzzo, Matt (April 27, 2015). "Loretta Lynch Is Sworn In as Attorney General". The New York Times. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
  68. ^ Martin, Jonathan; Burns, Alexander; Glueck, Katie (July 31, 2020). "Lobbying Intensifies Among V.P. Candidates as Biden's Search Nears an End". The New York Times.
  69. ^ Pager, Tyler. "Biden taps Susan Rice for top White House domestic policy job". POLITICO. Retrieved September 20, 2021.
  70. ^ Shear, Michael; Karni, Annie; Kaplan, Thomas (December 8, 2020). "Biden Picks Marcia Fudge for HUD and Tom Vilsack for Agriculture Secretary". The New York Times. Retrieved September 20, 2021.
  71. ^ O'Donnell, Katy; Pager, Tyler; Cassella, Megan. "Biden to tap Marcia Fudge to lead housing agency". POLITICO. Retrieved September 20, 2021.
  72. ^ Zeleny, Jeff; Merica, Dan; Saenz, Arlette; Reston, Maeve; Bradner, Eric (August 11, 2020). "Joe Biden picks Kamala Harris as his running mate". CNN. Retrieved August 12, 2020.
  73. ^ Lerer, Lisa; Ember, Sydney (November 7, 2020). "Kamala Harris Makes History as First Woman and Woman of Color as Vice President". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 7, 2020.
  74. ^ Brandon Tensley and Jasmine Wright (November 7, 2020). "Harris becomes the first female, first Black and first South Asian vice president-elect". CNN. Retrieved January 22, 2021.
  75. ^ a b Smooth, W.G. (2010). "Standing at the crossroads". Crisis. 117 (2): 14–20.
  76. ^ Romano, Lois (March 31, 2009). "Michelle's Image: From Off-Putting To Spot-On". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 4, 2009.
  77. ^ Let's Move! Archived August 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  78. ^ Stolberg, S.G. (January 14, 2010). "After a Year of Learning, the First Lady Seeks Out a Legacy". The New York Times. p. A20. Retrieved July 25, 2010.
  79. ^ Reston, Maeve (January 21, 2019). "Kamala Harris to run for president in 2020". CNN. Retrieved January 21, 2019.
  80. ^ Beckett, Lois (January 27, 2019). "Kamala Harris kicks off 2020 campaign with hometown Oakland rally". The Guardian. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
  81. ^ Agiesta, Jennifer (July 1, 2019). "CNN Poll: Harris and Warren rise and Biden slides after first Democratic debates". CNN.
  82. ^ Silver, Nate (August 7, 2019). "Polls Since The Second Debate Show Kamala Harris Slipping". FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved August 25, 2019.
  83. ^ Harris, Kamala (December 3, 2019). "I am suspending my campaign today". Medium. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  84. ^ Beckett, Lois (July 22, 2017). "Kamala Harris: young, black, female – and the Democrats' best bet for 2020?". The Guardian. Retrieved July 10, 2018.
  85. ^ Philpot, Tasha S.; Walton, Hanes (January 1, 2007). "One of Our Own: Black Female Candidates and the Voters Who Support Them". American Journal of Political Science. 51 (1): 49–62. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00236.x. JSTOR 4122905.
  86. ^ Kaba, Amadu Jacky; Ward, Deborah E. (2009). "African Americans and U.S. Politics: The Gradual Progress of Black Women in Political Representation". The Review of Black Political Economy. 36 (1): 29–50. doi:10.1007/s12114-009-9036-4. S2CID 153322146.
  87. ^ Glass, Christy; Cook, Alison (2020). "Pathways to the Glass Cliff: A Risk Tax for Women and Minority Leaders?". Social Problems. 67 (4): 637–653. doi:10.1093/socpro/spz045. Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  88. ^ tinashe (January 16, 2012). "The women's suffrage movement: The politics of gender race and class by Cherryl Walker". sahistory.org.za. Retrieved December 7, 2016.
  89. ^ "Trump stokes Kamala Harris 'birther' theory". BBC News. August 14, 2020. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  90. ^ Behrmann, Savannah. "'Unsurprising, but no less abhorrent': Reaction to Trump's comments about Sen. Harris' eligibility to be VP". USA Today. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  91. ^ Brewster, Jack. "Newsweek Stands By Op-Ed Questioning Kamala Harris' Eligibility As Vice President". Forbes. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  92. ^ Weindling, Jacob (October 31, 2018). "Dumb Internet Person Jacob Wohl Unsuccessfully Framing Robert Mueller Is the Comic Relief We Need Right Now". Paste. Archived from the original on November 8, 2018. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
  93. ^ Viebeck, Elise; Rosenberg, Eli; Paul, Deanna (November 15, 2018). "Michael Avenatti arrested on suspicion of domestic violence, calls allegations 'completely bogus'". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 17, 2018. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  94. ^ a b Palma, Bethania (November 16, 2018). "Michael Avenatti Was Arrested on Domestic Violence Charges, And Then Things Got Weird". Snopes. Retrieved February 11, 2019.
  95. ^ Sommerfeldt, Chris (November 1, 2018). "A conspiracy theorist claims no women were offered cash to smear Mueller". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  96. ^ a b Mahdawi, Arwa (October 5, 2019). "'Go Cougars!': Elizabeth Warren gave the classiest response to a rightwing troll's lie". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on June 2, 2020. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
  97. ^ Kasprak, Alex (August 30, 2018). "The Comically Flawed Attempt to Smear Robert Mueller, Explained". Snopes. Retrieved February 11, 2019.
  98. ^ Willis, Jay (March 13, 2019). "It Sure Seems Like Jacob Wohl Got Caught Making Despicable Death Threats Against...Jacob Wohl". GQ. Archived from the original on April 1, 2019. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
  99. ^ Shannon, Joel (September 4, 2019). "Conservative hoaxer Jacob Wohl charged with felony in California". USA Today. Archived from the original on June 29, 2020. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
  100. ^ Finnegan, Conor (August 3, 2020). "Trump appointee at USAID departs, decrying LGBT rights as 'sexual deviancy,' charging 'anti-Christian sentiment'". ABC News. Archived from the original on August 28, 2020. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
  101. ^ Roose, Kevin (October 25, 2018). "'False Flag' Theory on Pipe Bombs Zooms From Right-Wing Fringe to Mainstream". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on October 25, 2018. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  102. ^ Aggeler, Madeleine (October 31, 2018). "Every Way Jacob Wohl Messed Up His Attempt to Take Down Robert Mueller". The Cut. Archived from the original on November 15, 2018. Retrieved February 12, 2019.
  103. ^
  104. ^ a b Taylor, Goldie (January 30, 2019). "Who's Afraid of Kamala Harris?". The Daily Beast. Retrieved September 2, 2020.
  105. ^ "Yes, Kamala Harris is eligible to run for president". Politifact. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  106. ^ Seitz, Amanda (August 7, 2020). "Kamala Harris is eligible to serve as president". AP News. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  107. ^ Thenappan, Bala (August 11, 2020). "Kamala Harris Is Eligible to Serve as President". FactCheck.org. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  108. ^ Acosta, Sophie Tatum,Jim (November 29, 2017). "Report: Trump continues to question Obama's birth certificate | CNN Politics". CNN. Retrieved March 13, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  109. ^ a b Eastman, John C. (August 12, 2020). "Some questions for Kamala Harris about eligibility | Opinion". Newsweek. Retrieved August 14, 2020. Were Harris' parents lawful permanent residents at the time of her birth? ... [If not], then derivatively from her parents, Harris was not subject to the complete jurisdiction of the United States at birth, but instead owed her allegiance to a foreign power or powers—Jamaica, in the case of her father, and India, in the case of her mother—and was therefore not entitled to birthright citizenship under the 14th Amendment as originally understood.
  110. ^ Volokh, Eugene (August 13, 2020). "Yes, Kamala Harris is eligible to be vice president | Opinion". Newsweek. Retrieved August 14, 2020. The same is true for people born in the U.S. whose parents were foreign citizens. They were 'natural-born subjects' under English law, and thus 'natural-born citizens' to the Framers. Kamala Harris easily fits within that category.... [No] one thinks, for instance, that [such children] are immune from criminal prosecutions or civil lawsuits. They are likewise "subject to the jurisdiction" of the United States for citizenship purposes.
  111. ^ "Newsweek apologizes for op-ed that questioned Kamala Harris' citizenship". The Guardian. August 15, 2020. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
  112. ^ Ordoñez, Franco (August 13, 2020). "Trump And His Campaign Amplify 'Birther' Conspiracy Against Kamala Harris". NPR. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  113. ^ Millhiser, Ian (August 13, 2020). "The Trump campaign attack on Kamala Harris's citizenship is right out of the birther playbook". Vox. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  114. ^ Astor, Maggie (August 14, 2020). "Biden Urges Mandatory Masks, and Trump Pushes Birtherism". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  115. ^ Jardina, Ashley; Traugott, Michael (2019). "The Genesis of the Birther Rumor: Partisanship, Racial Attitudes, and Political Knowledge". Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics. 4 (1): 60–80. doi:10.1017/rep.2018.25.
  116. ^ "House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy met with birther movement activists in his office in 2013". CNN. January 17, 2018. Archived from the original on February 23, 2018. Retrieved March 13, 2020.
  117. ^ McGreal, Chris (July 28, 2009). "Anti-Obama 'birther movement' gathers steam". The Guardian. Archived from the original on February 18, 2020. Retrieved March 13, 2020.
  118. ^ Eichler, Alex (April 28, 2011). "Was the Birther Movement Always About Race?". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved March 13, 2020.
  119. ^ "Birther Movement (Obama Birth Certificate)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 12, 2019. Retrieved March 13, 2020.
  120. ^ "birther movement". NPR. Archived from the original on November 21, 2018. Retrieved March 13, 2020.
  121. ^ "birther movement". PBS. Archived from the original on February 13, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2020.
  122. ^ Green, Joshua (May 30, 2012). "The Democratic Roots of the Birther Movement". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on January 7, 2020. Retrieved March 13, 2020.
  123. ^ "Obama hits back at Internet slanders". Agence France-Presse. June 12, 2008. Archived from the original on June 15, 2008. Retrieved December 9, 2008.
  124. ^ "The truth about Barack's birth certificate". Obama for America. June 12, 2008. Archived from the original on September 22, 2008. Retrieved February 2, 2011.
  125. ^ Taylor, Goldie (April 27, 2011). "Why Obama shouldn't have had to 'show his papers'". The Rachel Maddow Show. Archived from the original on July 11, 2012. Retrieved July 21, 2011.
  126. ^ "Opinion". NBC News. August 12, 2020. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
  127. ^ "Fact check: Kamala Harris did not switch from identifying as Indian-American to Black". Reuters. August 24, 2020. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
  128. ^ "Fact check: Image purportedly of Kamala Harris's birth certificate does not show she was identified as "Caucasian"". Reuters. August 14, 2020. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
  129. ^ Amy, Jeff, Nadler, Ben (March 26, 2021). "Georgia Democratic state Rep. Park Cannon arrested as Gov. Brian Kemp signs GOP election bill that includes new restrictions on voting by mail and greater legislative control". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved March 28, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  130. ^ a b c "Georgia state lawmaker arrested protesting voting restriction bill outside governor's office". CNN. March 26, 2021. Retrieved March 26, 2021.
  131. ^ "Georgia lawmaker arrested protesting Kemp's signing of sweeping voting bill". The Hill. March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 26, 2021.
  132. ^ a b Diaz, Jaclyn (March 26, 2021). "Georgia Lawmaker Arrested As Governor Approves New Elections Law : NPR". NPR. Retrieved March 26, 2021.
  133. ^ The Atlanta Journal-Constitution staff (unnamed) (March 27, 2021). "Voting rights rally at Atlanta City Hall shows support for state rep". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Archived from the original on March 28, 2021. Retrieved March 28, 2021.
  134. ^ a b Niesse, Mark, Prabhu, Maya T., Bluestein, Greg (March 25, 2021). "Georgia representative arrested after governor signs elections bill". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Archived from the original on March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 28, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  135. ^ House, Billy (March 26, 2021). "Arrest of Georgia Lawmaker Sharpens Debate on Voting Bills". Bloomberg. Retrieved March 28, 2021.
  136. ^ Amy, Jeff (March 26, 2021). "Attorney for Georgia lawmaker calls charges 'overreach'". AP News. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved March 28, 2021.
  137. ^ Diaz, Jaclyn (March 26, 2021). "Georgia Lawmaker Arrested As Governor Approves New Elections Law : NPR". NPR. Retrieved March 26, 2021.
  138. ^ a b Brumback, Kate (April 7, 2021). "Georgia Lawmaker Won't Face Charges for Voting Bill Protest". Bloomberg.
  139. ^ Smith, Robert C (2003). Encyclopedia of African-American politics. New York City: Facts On File. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-8160-4475-7. OCLC 260053829.
  140. ^ Gray, D (1999). Too heavy a load: Black women in defense of themselves, 1894–1994. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-393-31992-7.
  141. ^ Ryan, B (2001). Identity politics in the women's movement. New York City: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7479-3.
  142. ^ Freedman, R. (2006). Freedom walkers: the story of the Montgomery bus boycott. New York: Holiday House. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-8234-2031-5.
  143. ^ Irvin, N. (2006). Creating black americans: african-american history and its meanings, 1619 to the present. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-19-513755-2.
  144. ^ Smith, B. (2000). Home girls: a black feminist anthology. New Jersey: Rutgers Univ Press. pp. 264–276. ISBN 978-0-8135-2753-6.
  145. ^ Kyungwon, G. (2006). The ruptures of American capital: women of color feminism and the culture of immigrant labor. Amherst: Univ Of Minnesota Press. p. xxvi. ISBN 978-0-8166-4635-7.
  146. ^ "Tired of the Oscar for Supporting Voter Role, Florida's Democratic African-American Women Take the Lead". August 4, 2014.
  147. ^ Henderson, Nia-Malika (March 27, 2014). "Report: Black women are political powerhouse yet remain socially vulnerable". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 9, 2020.
  148. ^ "BLACK WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES, 2014" (PDF). The Washington Post. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 28, 2021.
  149. ^ a b "We're Assata's Daughters". ZED Books. October 19, 2016. Retrieved February 16, 2017.
  150. ^ Sullivan, C. J. (July 18, 2014). "Man dies after suffering heart attack during arrest". New York Post. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
  151. ^ "Assata's Daughters - Our Herstory — Assata's Daughters". www.assatasdaughters.org. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017.
  152. ^ "Chicago's New Black Power". Chicago magazine. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
  153. ^ Lee, Kate Linthicum, Kurtis (March 12, 2016). "How black, Latino and Muslim college students organized to stop Trump's rally in Chicago". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 6, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  154. ^ Robnett, Belinda (May 1996). "African-American Women in the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965: Gender, Leadership, and Micromobilization". American Journal of Sociology. 101 (6): 1661–1693. doi:10.1086/230870. ISSN 0002-9602. S2CID 143029491.
  155. ^ "Coretta Scott King honored at church where husband preached". Lodi News-Sentinel. February 6, 2006.
  156. ^ Waxman, Laura Hamilton (January 2008). "Coretta Scott King". Lerner Publications. ISBN 9780761340003.
  157. ^ a b "Dorothy I. Height". nps.gov. National Park Service. Retrieved May 25, 2019.
  158. ^ Iovino, Jim (April 20, 2010). "Civil Rights Icon Dorothy Height Dies at 98". NBC Universal. Retrieved April 20, 2010.
  159. ^ Evans, Ben (April 20, 2010). "Dorothy Height, civil rights activist, dies at 98". Associated Press. Archived from the original on April 24, 2010. Retrieved April 20, 2010.
  160. ^ Dillard, Benita (Spring 2006). "NAACP: Helping African Americans confront social injustices for more than a century". Black History Bulletin. 69 (1).
  161. ^ Farmer, James (1998). Lay Bare the Heart. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press. p. 215. ISBN 9780875651880. Retrieved September 22, 2014. - Article on book: Lay Bare the Heart
  162. ^ a b Charron, Katherine Mellen (2009). Freedom's Teacher: The Life of Septima Clark. The University of North Carolina Press.
  163. ^ Olson, Lynne (2002). Freedom's Daughters: the unsung heroines of the civil rights movement from 1830 to 1970 / by Fred Powledge. New York: Simon & Schuster.
  164. ^ Payne, Charles. I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle. University of California, 1997.
  165. ^ Women had key roles in civil rights movement
  166. ^ Brown-Nagin, Tomiko (2006). The Transformation of a Social Movement into Law? the SCLC and NAACP's campaigns for civil rights reconsidered in the light of the educational activism of Septima Clark. Routledge.
  167. ^ "Black Reconstruction :: W E B Du Bois . org". webdubois.org. Retrieved June 16, 2020.
  168. ^ "The Deep Roots—and New Offshoots—of 'Abolish the Police'". POLITICO. Retrieved June 16, 2020.
  169. ^ Bakare, Lanre (June 15, 2020). "Angela Davis: 'We knew the role of the police was to protect white supremacy'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved June 16, 2020.
  170. ^ a b c Ohlheiser, Abby (October 19, 2017). "The woman behind 'Me Too' knew the power of the phrase when she created it – 10 years ago". The Washington Post.
  171. ^ a b D'Zurilla, Christie (October 16, 2017). "In saying #MeToo, Alyssa Milano pushes awareness campaign about sexual assault and harassment". Los Angeles Times.
  172. ^ Santiago, Cassandra; Criss, Doug. "An activist, a little girl and the heartbreaking origin of 'Me too'". CNN. Archived from the original on October 17, 2017. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
  173. ^ @Alyssa_Milano (October 16, 2017). "I was just made aware of an earlier #MeToo movement, and the origin story is equal parts heartbreaking and inspiringhttps://goo.gl/mh79fF" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  174. ^ Chavda, Janakee (September 29, 2022). "More Than Twice as Many Americans Support Than Oppose the #MeToo Movement". Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. Retrieved March 13, 2023.
  175. ^ "The #MeToo Backlash". Harvard Business Review. September 1, 2019. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved March 13, 2023.
  176. ^ Hunt, Jazelle (January 13, 2015). "Black Lives Still Matters to Grassroots and Black Media". Black Voice News. National Newspaper Publishers Association. Retrieved December 18, 2016.
  177. ^ Zarya, Valentina (July 19, 2015). "Founders of #BlackLivesMatter: Getting credit for your work matters". Fortune. Retrieved December 18, 2016.
  178. ^ a b Guynn, Jessica (March 4, 2015). "Meet the woman who coined #BlackLivesMatter". USA Today. Retrieved December 18, 2016.
  179. ^ a b Ruffin II, Herbert G. (August 23, 2015). "Black Lives Matter: The Growth of a New Social Justice Movement". BlackPast.org. Retrieved December 18, 2016.
  180. ^ Baptiste, Nathalie (February 9, 2017). "The Rise and Resilience of Black Lives Matter". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378. Archived from the original on November 16, 2019. Retrieved December 8, 2019.
  181. ^ Gebreyes, Rahel (September 10, 2014). "Patrisse Cullors Explains How Social Media Images of Black Death Propel Social Change". Huffington Post. Retrieved June 2, 2015.
  182. ^ "What Happened To Black Lives Matter?". BuzzFeed News. June 28, 2017. Retrieved December 8, 2019.
  183. ^ Halpin and Hoskins, Human Rights and the Internet (2000), pp. 8–9.
  184. ^ "How Black Lives Matter Changed the Way Americans Fight for Freedom". American Civil Liberties Union. July 13, 2018. Retrieved December 8, 2019.
  185. ^ Lindsey, Treva B. (2015). "Post-Ferguson: A 'Herstorical' Approach to Black Violability". Feminist Studies. 41 (1): 232–237. doi:10.15767/feministstudies.41.1.232.
  186. ^ Editor, Lilly Workneh Black Voices; Post, The Huffington (May 21, 2015). "#SayHerName: Black Women And Girls Matter, Too". HuffPost. Retrieved November 24, 2016.
  187. ^ "Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality against Black Women" (PDF). African American Policy Forum (AAPF).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_women_in_American_politics&oldid=1260039003"