Wikipedia

Ajam of Bahrain

(Redirected from Ajam (Bahrain))
Not to be confused with Baharna, the Shia majority indigenous people of Bahrain.

The Ajam of Bahrain (Arabic: عجم البحرین), also known as Persians of Bahrain or Iranians of Bahrain (Persian: ایرانیان بحرین), are a collection of ethnic groups in Bahrain composed of Bahraini citizens of Iranian ancestries and origins.[2][3][4][5][6][7]

Bahraini Iranians
عجم البحرين/فرس البحرين (in Arabic)
پارسیان بحرین/ایرانیان بحرین (in Persian)
Iranian school in Bahrain 1939
Languages
Persian (Bahraini, Bushehri, Shirazi), Achomi/Khodmooni, Baluchi, Luri, Azeri, Ajami Arabic,[1] Bahraini Arabic
Religion
Islam (Twelver Shias, Sunnis), Bahaiis, Christians, Non-religious
Related ethnic groups
Iranian diaspora (Iranians of UAE • Ajam of Bahrain • Ajam of Qatar • Ajam of Iraq • 'Ajam of Kuwait • Iranians of Canada • Iranians of America • Iranians of UK • Iranians of Germany • Iranians of Israel • Iranians in Turkey)

Iranian Peoples (Lurs, Achomis, Baluchs, Kurds, Iranian Azeris), Turkic peoples (Qashqai, Azerbaijanis), Huwala

Most families are of a Shia background, although there is a number of Sunni families of Achomi and Baluchi ancestry as well.[2][3]: 36, 39 [4][5][6] They are mostly bilingual.

The Ajam are found in significant numbers in Manama, Muharraq, and Shia majority areas such as Saar, Diraz and Samaheej. Both Samaheej and Diraz have their names derived from Persian.[8][9]

Terms explained

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  • Persian: This label is more often used in English partly due to the fact that "Iran" was known in the western world as "Persia". In 1959, the government of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Reza Shah's son, announced that both "Persia" and "Iran" could officially be used interchangeably.[10] In Bahrain, this term is used for and by anyone of Persian/Iranian roots both genetically and linguistically. Bahrainis of a Persian speaking/Iranian background use this term to refer to themselves.[7]: 53  While others (Musa Al-Ansari states) see this terms it as just a term for Ajams from a Shia background.[7]: 27 
  • Ajami (Plural: Ajam): The same general meaning of the term applies here, initially used to refer to those from a Persian speaking background locally,[7]: 26  similarly to its historical use,[11] however nowadays any non-Arab is referred to as an Ajam.[7]: 27  Musa Al-Ansari states that this term originally referred to non-Arabs of a Persian-speaking (or derivative; i.e. Achomi) background as they were the only non-Arabic speakers in Bahrain, but due to the increase of other non-arab/non-arabic speaking ethnicities and people (such as Asians) he claims to have "reservations" to it due to its wide meaning.[7]: 27  While some find this term to be derogatory due to its negative historical use context,[12] some Sunni "Achumi" Iranians claim it is only for those of a Shia background,[13] whilst they have been referred to as "Ajam" in the past,[14] similarly to the situation in Kuwait, others don't reject or deny it.[7]: 30 

Ethnic composition

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See also: Demographics of Bahrain § Genetics

The Iranians of Bahrain are the descendants of immigrants who immigrated to this country in the 19th and 20th centuries (1800~2000 AD) from the southern provinces of Iran, including Fars province,[3][15] Bushehr province,[16][3][7] Hormozgan province, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad province, Khoramshahr,[16] Sistan and Baluchistan,[7][3][5][6] and Lorestan.[15]

The people of Iranian origins are made up of different ethnic groups,[7]: 26-27  including, Iranian/Iranic peoples:

By origin location:

Other groups:

History

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See also: Bahrain, History of Bahrain, and History of Iran

Iranian migration into Bahrain goes back to the days of the Sassanid and Achaemenid Persian empire, though in modern times there has been a constant migration for hundreds of years.[26] There has always been a migration of Persian-speaking Shia into Bahrain.[27]

Pre-Islamic period

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Researchers claim that Bahrain was inhabited by partially-Christianized Arabs,[28][29][30] Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists,[28][31][32] Persian Zoroastrians, and a small amount of Jews.[33]

Robert Bertram Serjeant, believes that the Baharna (Arabic: بحارنه) may be the last of the "descendants of converts from the original population of Christians (Aramaeans), Jews and ancient Zoroastrian Persians (Referred to as "Majus" by Arabs) inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of Eastern Arabia at the time of the Arab conquest".[28][34]

The Christian sentiment is supported by Archaeology as Archaeologists uncovered a Christian church in Samaheej belonging to that period.[35]

Islamic narrations claim that Bahrain was majorly a Zoroastrian population, before the Arab conquest, and that Mohammed took the Jizya from them.[36][37][38]

The Bahraini population is said to have spoken Syriac and Persian (likely Middle "Pahlavi" Persian) at the time.[28] Bahrain's old population is said to have also had a Persian clergy (Zoroastrians) who used Syriac as a language of liturgy and writing more generally.[28]

Modern Migrations

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It claimed that after the decline of the Safavid Empire (1501–1736), which was nearly destroyed by Pashtun armies, Persian Sunnis played a significant role in setting up Sunni governance in Bahrain.[9] Persian Sunni (Achomi/Ajam) communities in Bahrain, alongside the Howala Arab tribes, took control of the island, establishing a Sunni-dominated rule.[9]

It is claimed that Persians were settling in Hormuz and Bahrain at the time when there was a conflict between the Portuguese and the Persian Empire on ruling Bahrain, notably during the time of Nader Shah.[7]: 22-26 

The number began to increase significantly in the year 1850, and due to the natural problems that the Iranian arena faced, such as lack of rain and due to waves of famine, cholera and smallpox outbreaks and increased crime rates, this led to immigration to a large-scale migration to Bahrain.[7]: 8 [3]: 60 Bushehri states that no one leaves his homeland, land, or clan unless they were forced to.[7]: 8 

The period 1860-1910 is classified as the "first generation" migration by some.[3]: 59  It includes places like Bushehr, Bandar Abbas, Bandar Langeh Mohammerah (Khorramshahr),[3]: 60 [16][39] and Lorestan.[15]

In 1860, the Bushehri family migrates to Bahrain.[7]: 13 [3]: 60 

During the early 20th century, the Iranian central government imposed new import and export taxes,[15] The introduction of taxes was an effort to reinforce the authority of the Iranian state and draw revenue from affluent peripheral areas like Bandar Lingeh and Bushehr, which were key economic hubs in the Gulf during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[39] Migrants, familiar with the region, circumvented these restrictions by choosing alternative routes.[39] To escape the heavy taxation, many merchants simply relocated to the other side, a practice that had been common for centuries due to the familiarity of the region,[15] prompting the migration of tens of thousands of people from southern Iran to the opposite shores.[15] Bahrain became a primary destination for these migrants,[39] leading to a significant increase in its Iranian population.[39] This period also saw heightened British involvement in the region.[15][39]

In 1904, anti-Persian rioting broke out in the markets of Manama, marking the first recorded instance of local resistance against migrants in Bahrain.[39] The British labeled the incident as "anti-Persian" and subsequently took control over the affairs of Iranian migrants in Bahrain.[39] In response, the Iranian central government requested British assistance to ensure justice for its citizens in Bahrain.[39] According to historian Stephenson, this request was a temporary measure rather than an attempt to permanently cede jurisdiction, reflecting the historically fluid and overlapping borders in the Gulf region.[39]

According to Dr. Ali Akbar Bushehri, in the year 1905, the Ajam of Bahrain were estimated to be around 1650.[7]

By 1909, the British who were treating Iranians as foreigners in need of British protection,[15] had convinced the Sheikh of Bahrain (Isa bin Ali Al Khalifa) to oversee the Iranian migrants after spending five years of trying to convince him that they were foreigners,[39] even though the Iranians (of Bahrain) themselves had not sought such protection.[15] This shift marked the introduction of new territorialized identities in the Gulf,[15][39] replacing earlier conceptions of belonging that were based on familial ties rather than geographic origin.[15][39] The British court system reinforced this "spatial awareness", bringing a legal and official understanding of belonging that was increasingly tied to territorial boundaries.[15][39] Despite the British designation of Iranians as foreigners,[15][39] the Sheikh of Bahrain viewed them as part of his subjects,[15][39] prioritizing their economic contributions over any concern about their origins.[15]

 
Shaikh Isa bin Ali Al Khalifa (1848 – 1932)

In 1910, the local Iranian community funded and opened a private school, Al-Ittihad school (Persian: دبستان اتحاد ملی, romanized: Dabistan Ittihad Melli, lit. 'National Union Primary School'),[40][41] that taught Persian, besides other subjects.[41] It is considered one of the earliest, if not first, school to be opened in Bahrain.[42][43] Between 1910 and 1919, in the absence of state-run schools on the islands, some Bahrainis attended Al-Ittihad, contributing to the development of modern education in the region.[42]: 293–294  It had a secular approach influenced by the Pahlavi dynasty up until the 1979 Revolution.[42]: 293–294 

Between 1919 and 1923, Members of the Iranian community asked the government to require teaching Persian (Farsi) as part of the curriculum in all schools but this was rejected.[42]: 292 

 
Reza Shah, Shah of Iran from 1925 to 1941

Between 1920 and 1940, before World War II, more families migrated from Bushehr to Bahrain to avoid the on-going conflict between Reza Shah and the English.[7]: 20 

In the 1920s, a wave of nationalism began to sweep through the ‘Ajam community in Bahrain, inspired by Reza Shah's rise to power in 1925 and his modernizing efforts, which promised to bring Iran closer to contemporary standards of living.[42]: 34  By the late 1920s, the Iranian schools in Bahrain had intensified their nationalist activities to a controversial level.[42]: 34  There was fear of the Persians in Bahrain.[7]: 10  Anything that happens in Iran that is annoying to Bahrain or another side of the Gulf, the pressure is immediately put on Iranians living in Bahrain or the rest of the Gulf in general.[7]: 10 According to the Persian newspaper Shafagh-i Sorkh ("The Red Sunset"), on December 5, 1928, the principals of these schools were summoned by the consul, who conveyed that playing drums and fifes was prohibited by the Bahraini government, and the Persian flag was not to be displayed on certain occasions.[42]: 34 

Most modern migration of Iranians to Bahrain started around the year 1928, according to the oldest document they had in 2009, but this doesn't mean they didn't exist before this period, recounts Dr. Ali Akbar Bushehri.[7]

During the 1930s, some conservative Sunni families have migrated from Iran to Bahrain due to the fear of Reza Shah imposed "Kashf-e hijab" law and what these families perceived as an "extreme secularism against religion" comparable to "Atatürk".[7]: 18, 33 

 
Iranian School in Bahrain 1939

In 1931, the two Iranian schools in Bahrain merged into a single institution named Madrase-ye Ittiḥād-e Mellī (also known as Ittiḥādi-ye Iranian or Ittiḥādiyeh), and continued to operate under this name until 1970. While the school's ownership was not officially transferred to the Iranian embassy until 1970, it had already adopted a strong Iranian nationalist identity by the late 1920s. By 1932, British sources described the Iranian school as a center of Iranian nationalism, with frequent parades where the Iranian flag was prominently flown and students were required to wear traditional Iranian hats.[42]: 35 

 
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1941 to 1979

In 1941, Mohammed Reza Shah becomes the Shah of Iran.

On 12 November 1957, Iran declared Bahrain a province,[44] with two parliamentary seats dedicated to it[45] (in the early 1900s, one parliamentary seat was reserved for Bahrain).[46] A year later in 1958 Sheikh Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa (ruler of Bahrain) pledged allegiance to Iran.[47] One of his predecessors, Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifah Al Khalifa had in 1851 asked for Iranian protection against Wahabbis and declared his preparedness to be a Qajar Iran protectorate. However, the British forced him to become their protectorate.[48]

At 12:50 p.m. on March 26, 1970, London Radio announced that both Britain and Iran had submitted a request to the Secretary-General of the United Nations to send a representative from the international organization to survey the opinion of the people of Bahrain as to whether they wish to remain under British Protectorate or to have Independence or be part of Iran.[7]: 48, 52  Musa Al-Ansari recounts that he voted on the promise for the country to be an independent democratic country that respects minorities, "I went to vote as a Bahraini, but I do not want to lose my identity as a Persian."[7]: 51, 53 

Post Revolution

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See also: Islamic Revolution of 1979, Wahhabism, Pan-Arabism, Arab nationalism, Sectarianism, and Islamic extremism

Bushehri recounts that the "Khomeini Revolution" created a rift between the Ajams of Bahrain.[7]: 96  Majority of Bahraini Iranians were opposed to the Revolution, but they started supporting it over time.[7]: 96  Mohammed Al-Qassab recounts "We were proud of the revolution because it overthrew the Shah. It removed from us the worry of ambitions and expansion. But we got in new labyrinths and greed of a different kind wrapped in revolutionary and religious slogans."[7]: 97–98 

In 1993 the Persian "Isfahani Restaurant" was opened in Bahrain by two Persian brothers.[49]

The 1990s uprising in Bahrain took place in-between 1994 and 1999 in which leftists, liberals and Islamists joined forces to demand democratic reforms.

After the Revolution in Iran, the Iranian School was renamed to "Islamic Republic School."[citation needed] At that time, the school was being funded and operated by the Iranian Ministry of Education.[42]: 293–294  The 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran led to a shift in the school's ideological framework and curriculum.[42]: 293–294  Prior to the Revolution, the school followed a secular approach influenced by the Pahlavi dynasty for nearly 70 years.[42]: 293–294  For over seventy-five years, the school has provided education to multiple generations in Bahrain.[42]: 293–294  In 1996, the "Iranian school" was shutdown by the Bahraini government.[42][50]

In 2002, Bahraini's King, Hamad Bin Isa, announced many of the Ajams of Bahrain as Bahraini citizens and granted them citizenships.[citation needed]

In 2003, Khatami visited Bahrain which marked the first visit of an Iranian president to Bahrain since 25 years,[51] Khatami gave a lecture in the Arabic language at the Gulf Hotel in Manameh.[7]: 97  Bushehri recounts "The place was buzzing with Ajams, support, and prayers. Me and two of my friends were there. Everyone raises their voices in prayer except for us. For the first time, I felt that I had become a minority among a minority. Three people, a minority among 1,500.[7]: 97 

The Bahraini people became considerably very religious after the 1979 events,[7]: 99–100  and the Wahhabi movement in Saudi which was strengthened by oil exports,[52]: 61–62  Musa Al-Ansari recounts: "I do not know why the revolution took this character in Bahrain. The fanaticism that exists in Bahrain does not exist in Iran. In Iran you will see people listening to music and songs, women in half-veils laughing in the street. Here you are an infidel if you listen to a cassette or hear singing. Bahrain is a completely different situation."[7]: 99–100  Al-Qassab wonders, "where did we get all this fanaticism from?" to which Al-Ansari responds "From Islamic Extremism."[7]: 100–101 

In the year 2009, the Iranians of Bahrain were estimated to be around 20% of the local population.[7]: 7 [note 1]

After the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran were ransacked by Iranian protesters following the execution of Nimr al-Nimr, Bahrain followed Saudi Arabia's decision by severing diplomatic relations with the Islamic Republic of Iran.[53]

In 2024, Bahrain restored diplomatic relations with the Islamic Republic of Iran.[54]

Some of the new generation of Ajams of Bahrain do not identify much religiously and do not give attention to issues such as sectarianism or over religiosity, and rather view all their peers of different backgrounds as one.[citation needed]

Issues

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See also: Human rights in Bahrain, Pan-Arabism, Arab nationalism, Sectarianism, and Islamic extremism

They accuse us of not having loyalty. What do they mean, that we have no loyalty? The aggressor will not differentiate between an Arab and a non-Arab. We must all defend this land. That brings us together.

— Nasser Hussein, [7]: 83 

Ajams/Persians/Iranians of Bahrain could quite often face discrimination and racism,[17][18][9][16] and their loyalty is always questioned.[7]: 88–95  Sectarian conflicts following the Islamic revolution of Iran,[7]: 96  2011 events, along with Islamic extremism,[7]: 99–100  attributed to divisions among the Ajams of Bahrain.

While students in Iran study Formal Arabic,[55] Bahrainis of Iranian origin or ancestry (whatever their background) cannot study Persian (Farsi), or any Iranian language, the suggestion was made between 1919-1923 and ignored.[42]: 292 

One of the key reasons behind the Bahraini government's promotion of an "Arab identity" framework among its population is to mitigate its deep-rooted historical ties with Iran and its Persian community (Ajam), as well as the indigenous Arab Shi’a (Baharna).[3]: 72  The intertwined history of Bahrain and Iran, along with their respective peoples, dates back to at least the 5th century BCE during the Achaemenid Empire.[3]: 72  Over the centuries, both regions have vied for control of the Gulf, with influence shifting back and forth since pre-Islamic times.[3]: 72  Notably, during the Sassanian Empire, parts of the Arabian Peninsula and Iraq, now predominantly Arab-controlled, were once under Iranian rule.[3]: 72  The Gulf Arab states have focused on cultural autonomy and preserving a distinctly Arabian and Islamic national identity, as evidenced by their national constitutions.[56] Furthermore, the ruling families (in the Gulf) have set a precedent by removing all traces of their transnational connections from their national narratives.[56] In the Gulf today, public discourse regarding the Persian, Indian, and African mothers of former shaykhs and shaykhas is heavily discouraged.[56] Gulf nationals who cannot trace their ancestry to Arabian origins and tribal affiliations are typically excluded from high-ranking government positions, while those with no Arab lineage are often limited to the most junior roles.[56] The notable exceptions to this trend seem to be Oman and, since 2000, Bahrain.[56] Additionally, Shi‘i Arabs face varying degrees of discrimination depending on the state.[56] Consequently, a historian relying on the accounts of a Gulf Arab family is likely to encounter a curated history that serves contemporary interests.[56]

Shias in Bahrain or people of a Shia background in general (including Bahranis, and Shia Ajams) face discrimination,[56] and are often called "Majoos",[57] a term invented by Arabs for Zoroastrians; who are a minority today, often accused of "worshipping fire" as well,[58] which is untrue as Zoroastrians worship "Ahuramazda" and the fire to them is as holy as the Kaabah is to Muslims). It is worth noting that the majority of Bahrain's Shia population are Bahrani people who are mostly (around 50%) eastern Arabs and (around 30%~) North West Asian (Iranian, Caucasian, and Mespotamian) according to their genes,[59][60] and the two (Baharna and Ajams) can be often conflated by many.[57] Many individuals, particularly those who view all Shias as 'Iranian Majoos,' also accuse them of being subservient to the Islamic Republic of Iran.[57] It is important to note that this perception has been prevalent among some Sunni (Achum) Iranians,[61] ultimately leading to unintended consequences for them.[62] While it is noted that they were also known as "Ajam" in the past,[14] The Sunni Ajams do not face such discrimination,[63] and many of them identify as "Hawala"[7]: 9 [19][17][18] or Arab,[64] and/or reject the term "Ajam."[13] It is also noted that this group (the "Ajam" who later adopted the title "Huwala") introduced Nationalism during the heyday of Gamal Abdel Naser as means of fighting colonialism.[14]

Since 1980s till mid 2000s, a lot of "Bidoon" Iranians have been deported back to Iran,[3] many of which were working for BAPCO, the island's oil company, claimed to have been an attempt to open up more jobs for the native Bahraini population.[3]: 74–75 

Based on a study in 2013, the researcher noted: the linguistic and religious situation of Sunni Persians in Bahrain is thorny and sometimes it is intentionally confused between "Hole\Hawala Arabs" and "Sunni Persians".[20] The same study also claims that Sunni Achomis did not face any systematic racism.[20] Some Sunni Achomis actively reject efforts to attribute Arab origins to their heritage.[63]

In 2015, Al-Wasat columnist and journalist “Hani Al-Fardan” wrote an article in which he explained (indirectly) that a lot of people are getting in the fashion of changing their family names either for political or financial reasons, he explained “if one knew the original names and the names they changed to, they wouldn’t be surprised.”[65]

In 2019, Dr. Abdullah Madani, writer of Al-Ayam newspaper and specialist in Asian affairs, describes in an article how a Bahraini of Persian origin once protested to him that he used his family name among the Ajams. Bahrain has brought. Madani had dedicated one of his articles to Bahrainis of Ajam of Iranian race and especially Shiites. In his article entitled "Kabir al-Ajam fe Al-Bahrain", he mentioned the name of "Akbari" family as one of the most famous Ajam families in Bahrain, along with the names of many other families. Ismail Akbari (husband of writer Sosan Al-Shaer and father of Bahrain Consultative Council member Bassam Ismail Al-Bon Mohammad "Akbari") strongly protested. In his opinion, the name "Ajam" refers only to Shias of Iranian origin, not to Sunnis, and his family, who are "Bastaki", not "Ajami".[13]

In October 2024, the Arab Gulf States held their first joint meeting with the European Union in a considerable period. The meeting concluded with the EU affirming the position of the Gulf countries that the islands of Abu Musa, Greater Tunb, and Lesser Tunb are sovereign territories of the United Arab Emirates.[66] This development provoked a response from the Islamic Republic of Iran, in which Kamal Kharazi, head of Iran's Strategic Council on Foreign Relations claimed Bahrain's Iranian/Persian identity.[67] In response, members of Bahrain’s parliament rejected the claim, stating that Bahrain is historically Arab.[67] and that Iran is merely trying to "export it's internal crisis."[67][68] This included statements from MP Members of Iranian ancestry, such as Mohammed Hassan Janahi, who reiterated that "all Bahrainis firmly stand with their country’s Arab identity," Hesham Abdulaziz Al-Awadhi, who "affirmed Bahrain's Arab identity" and Mohamed Yousif Al-Maarafi who stated "Bahrain has been Arab since its founding."[67] These statements reignited anti-Persian, anti-Iranian, and anti-Shia sentiments, with many resorting to the term “Majus” (مجوس) as a derogatory slur on social media.[69] The specific target of this insult remains unclear, as the term has historically been used against Shias (including the indigenous Arab Baharna), Shia Arab Iraqis, Iranians, and even Bahrain’s Ajam community.

Languages

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The Ajam speak southern Iranian languages and Persian dialects distinctive to the cities they have originated from:

Below is a comparison chart of English, Modern Standard Arabic, Bahraini Arabic, Achomi, Standard New Persian, Bahraini/Bushehri New Persian, and Iranian/Tehrani New Persian:

Sentences

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English Modern Standard Arabic Bahraini Arabic Achomi Standard New Persian Bahraini/Bushehri New Persian Iranian/Tehrani New Persian
What for? Arabic: لماذا؟, romanized: lematha Arabic: حگ شنو؟, romanized: hag sheno? Persian: برای چه؟, romanized: baráye che Persian: سی چه؟, romanized: Si cheh Persian: واسه چی؟, romanized: vaseh che
Do you want water? Arabic: هل تريد ماء؟, romanized: hal turidu ma'a? Arabic: تَبي ماي؟, romanized: taby mai? Persian: آیا شما آب می خواهید؟, romanized: Aaya shoma ab mekhaheed? Persian: اُو مي خای؟, romanized: ow mikhay Persian: آب میخوای؟, romanized: áb mikhái
He did not know what to do, suddenly he thought that he could go to the camel's home. Arabic: لم يكن يعرف ماذا يفعل، فجأة فكر أنه يستطيع الذهاب إلى بيت الجمل., romanized: lam yakun yaerif madha yafeila, faj'atan fakar 'anah yastatie aldhahab 'iilaa bayt aljumli. Persian: اُشنا فَمی چُنگ بُکُن، اِرانِ اَفِک کَت کِه اُ چی اَ خونَه ی دامونِ اُشتُری, romanized: oshna fami chong bokon, erani a fek kat ke oi chi akhonaye damone oshtori Persian: او نمی دانست چه کند، ناگهان فکر کرد که می تواند به خانه شتر برود, romanized: u namidanast che konad, nagahan fekr kard keh metavanad beh khaney shetar beravad Persian: او نمی‌دونست چیکار کنه، یهو فکر کرد که می‌تونه بره خونه شتر., romanized: ou namidanast che kar koneh, yaho fekr kard keh metoneh bereh khoney shetar
I told you Arabic: أنا قلت لك, romanized: ana qulto laka Arabic: آنه گلت لك, romanized: aaneh gelt lek Persian: مَن بِه شُما گُفتَم, romanized: man be shoma goftam Persian: مُو سیت (سی تو) گفتُم, romanized: mo seet goftum Persian: مَن بِهِت (به تو) گُفتَم, romanized: man behet goftam

Words/Nouns

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English Modern Standard Arabic Bahraini Arabic Achomi Standard New Persian Bahraini/Bushehri New Persian Iranian/Tehrani New Persian
Money Arabic: مال, romanized: mal Arabic: فلوس/بيزات, romanized: feloos/bizat Persian: پول, romanized: Púl Persian: پِیسه, romanized: peyse Persian: پول, romanized: Púl
Food Arabic: طعام, romanized: taam Arabic: اكل, romanized: akel Persian: خوراک, romanized: khorak Persian: غذا, romanized: ghaza (from Arabic) Persian: خوراک, romanized: khorak Persian: غذا, romanized: ghaza (from Arabic)
Breakfast Arabic: إفطار, romanized: iftar Arabic: فطور/ریوگ, romanized: fotoor/reyoog Persian: ناشتا, romanized: Nashta Persian: صبحانه, romanized: Sobhaneh Persian: ناشتا, romanized: Nashta Persian: صبحانه, romanized: Sobhaneh
Lunch Arabic: غداء, romanized: ghada'a Arabic: غده, romanized: ghadeh Persian: چاشت, romanized: Chasht Persian: ناهار, romanized: Nahar (from Arabic) Persian: چاش, romanized: Chash Persian: ناهار, romanized: Nahar (from Arabic)
Socks Arabic: جوراب, romanized: jurab Arabic: دولاغ, romanized: Dolagh

(from Achomi)

Persian: دولاغ, romanized: Dolagh ? Persian: جوراب, romanized: Jurab (from Arabic) Persian: دولاغ, romanized: Dolagh Persian: جوراب, romanized: Jurab
Aunt Arabic: عمة/خالة, romanized: ameh/khaleh Arabic: عمة/خالة, romanized: ameh/khaleh Persian: ببه/دامون, romanized: babeh/damon Persian: عمه/خاله, romanized: ameh/khaleh Persian: عمه/خاله, romanized: ameh/khaleh
Nose Arabic: انف, romanized: anf Arabic: خشم, romanized: khashem Persian: پوز, romanized: puz Persian: دماغ, romanized: demagh Persian: پوز, romanized: puz Persian: دماغ, romanized: demagh
Mouth Arabic: فم, romanized: fam Arabic: بوز, romanized: booz Persian: کَپ, romanized: kap Persian: دهن, romanized: dahan Persian: کَپ, romanized: kap Persian: دهن, romanized: dahan
Brain Arabic: مخ/دماغ, romanized: mokh/demagh Arabic: مخ/دماغ, romanized: mokh/demagh Persian: مغز, romanized: maghz Persian: مغز, romanized: maghz

Cultural Heritage

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Music

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See also: Sultaneez and Music of Bahrain

Sultaneez was a local Bahraini band that operated between 1989 and 2003, they are known for laying the foundation for "Bandari music," they have produced songs in Achomi (Bastaki dialect), Farsi, and Arabic. Their Bastaki song "Naz Akon Naz Akon" inspired by Yusuf Hadi Bastaki's folkloric song of the same name, is one of the most popular songs of this group.[82] Kouros Shahmiri's song "Naz Nakon", which was released later (1998 AD),[83][note 2][84] was inspired by Sultaneez's song "Naz Akon", which was released on June 25, 1990.[85][note 3] Additionally, the song "Chai Chayi" by Koros was also inspired by the song of Soltaniz "Chayi Chayeem Kalam Dard Akon", which was released in 1989.[86][87] Their legacy still lives on to this day, and many Bahraini Iranians listen to them to remember their roots.

 
Sultanies as they appear in their last Album "Aroosi" released in 2000

Other Bahraini Persian bands include:

  • Al-Kawakib (فرقة الکواکب البحرینیة)
  • Sharks (فرقة شارکس البحرینیة)
  • Al-Ghuraba'a (فرقة الغرباء البحرینیة)
  • Al-Danah (فرقة الدانة البحرینیة) - This group was composed of "Janahi" family members.
  • Al-Salam (فرقة السلام البحرینیة)

Food

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Achomi

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Mahyaweh
  • One of the notable local delicacies of the Achomi Persians in Bahrain is Mahyawa, consumed in Southern Iran (and specifically in Irahistan) as well, is a watery earth brick coloured sauce made from sardines and consumed with bread or other food.
 
Khanfaroosh
  • Cham-Chamoo is a sweet naan that is made similar to Qeshm Island version.

Other

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Other food items consumed are similar to other Iranian cuisine. For example, Kaleh Pacheh (Arabic: باجه, romanized: bajeh, Persian: پاچه, romanized: Pacheh) is very popular in Bahrain,[92] in addition to Iranian Grills, Chello Kabab, and other National Iranian dishes.

Restaurants

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Famous Iranian restaurants in Bahrain include "Isfahani" (named after Isfahan) and "Takht Jamshid" (named after a famous historical site in Persopolis).[49][93]

Families

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Many of the previously mentioned families are of Persian origin based on historical records and the locations of their ancestral homelands.[3][9] However, many choose to identify as Arabs to avoid discrimination or controversy.[9] Ultimately, this often depends on the strength of their Persian cultural ties and the surrounding environment, which can lead to differing views within the same family about whether their heritage is Persian or Arab.[9]

It is also common for these families to add "Al" (Arabic: ال), meaning "The," to their surnames to make them sound more Arabic.[9][56] Some view this as abandoning or distancing themselves from their Persian roots, while others see it as a way to avoid racial issues. This shift is evident today, as many have adopted Arabic attire and now only speak fluent Arabic.[9]

Contributions

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Linguistic influences

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The Bādgir of the house of Shaikh Isa Bin Ali looks very similar to the older ones found in Southern Iran, likely introduced to UAE and Bahrain by Migrant Iranians from the South of Iran.[16][39]

The Iranian languages has had the biggest foreign linguistic influence on Bahrani and Bahraini Arabic.[9][79][70][80][81][95] The indigenous Bahrani dialect of Bahrain has also borrowed many words from Persian, for example:

  • Chandal - woods used in constructing the roof of old buildings.
  • Bādgir - towers with single or two, three or four sided openings above dwellings in order to let wind air into the building to create a current and hence cool the air inside the lower floor rooms. Now they refer to them as "Mulgaf" (ملقف) instead.
  • Hast - Existing, for example Bahrainis sometimes say "Sh-hast?" (Meaning: What's up?).[95]: 43 
  • Bannad - He closed.[95]: 83 
  • Khosh - Good.[95]: 120 
  • Buuz - Mouth (noted to be from an older Iranian dialect).[95]: 134 

Imported goods

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  • The migration of the Bushehri community to Bahrain led to a significant rise in the importation of certain goods, including books, rosewater, tea, and spirits, which distinguished them from the local Arab population.[96]: 60 
  • Persians in Bahrain are known and are famous in Bahrain for bread-making.[97]

Husayniyya

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See also: Muharram in Bahrain
 
Matam Al-Ajam Al-Kabeer in Manama
 
Matam Al Ajam interior, Fareej el-Makharqa

Matam Al-Ajam Al-Kabeer (Arabic:مأتم العجم الكبير) is the first Persian Matam and the largest such matam in Bahrain. It was founded in Fareej el-Makharqa by Abdul-Nabi Al-Kazerooni, a rich Persian merchant who was a representative of the Persian community in the council of the hakim Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa.[98] Himself an immigrant from the Dashti region of Iran, he single-handedly organised processions, collected donations and hired orators (Arabic: خطيب) to speak at the matam.[98] Construction started in 1882 as a specialized building where Ashura, a holy day in Shia Islam, would be marked with processions, ceremonial flagellation and passion plays commemorating the death of Imam Hussain.[99] The matam is still used for this purpose.

It was originally built with simple construction material such as palm tree trunks and leaf stalks. The matam was formally established in 1904 where it was decided that the matam would be renovated with rocks, clay and cement.[100] Initially in the 1890s, the matam was primarily supported by Persian merchants, with two-thirds of the donation coming from the Bushehri and Safar family, respectively. For much of the 20th century, the matam had relied on yearly donations of money and land from rich and poor members of the Persian community and from waqf revenue.[99] The matam also had an emergency relief fund that was to be distributed to the poor and to needy individuals; the matam provided financial aid and shelter to people following the collapse of the pearling market in the 1930s.[99]

Upon the death of Abdul-Nabi Al-Kazerooni in 1927, Abdul Nabi Bushehri, himself a Persian immigrant from Bushehr and a well-respected figure in the Persian community, took control of the matam.[98] Unlike his close friend, Bushehri ran the matam with other notables of the Persian community, forming a de facto board. Upon Bushehri's death in 1945, the board took over. In order to prevent confusion, the board appointed a specific member, Hasan Baljik, to act as key carrier to the matam and responsible for programs and budgetary issues.[98] In 1971, an administrative board consisting of a president, vice president, secretary, treasurer and others was set up, all of whom were rich merchants.[98]

 
Shia Ajams in Manama during Muharram parades (November 2014).

Names of Locations

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In addition to this, many names of villages in Bahrain are derived from Persian,[95][9] Bahrain's historical ties to Persian culture, particularly under the Achaemenid,[3]: 72  Parthian,[101] and Sassanian Empire,[3]: 72  as well as influences during the Safavid rule (1501–1722),[9] have left a significant impact on place names and cultural elements in the region.[95][9] City and village names such as Manama, Karbabad, Salmabad, Karzakan, Samaheej, Tashan, Duraz, Barbar, Demistan, Karrana, Shakhura, Shahrekan, and Jurdab were originally derived from Persian, suggesting Persian influence on the island's history.[95][9]

Current Name Former Name Persian root Translation
Al-Manama (Arabic: المنامه) Manamah Man-Nameh

(Persian: من نامه)

The name "Manāmah" was first recorded around the year 730 AH (approximately 1330 AD) during the visit of Turān Shah of Hurmuz to the island. At that time, it had already been annexed by his predecessor, Tahamtam II of Hurmuz.[95]: 23 

Derived from two words, meaning I and Speech. Originally it was called simply "Manamah" before being renamed to Al-Manamah. In Persian, "man" (من) means "me," and "nameh" (نامه) means "letter," similar to the structure of words like "Shah Nameh" (Book of Kings).

Some claim that Al-Manama is actually derived from Arabic Al-Muna'amah (المنعمة) and its people were referred to as Almuna'ami; in the Shia book by Sayyed Mohsen Alameen "A'yan Alshia" (أعيان الشيعة) a Shi'a scholar from Manama or Muna'ama was mentioned Shaykh Ali bin Umran bin Fayad Almuna'ami Albahrani (شيخ علي بن عمران بن فياض المنعمي البحراني)

Al-Adliya Zulmabad[7]: 106 [102] Zulm Abad

(Persian: ظلم‌آباد)

Like the name of a village in Gotvand County, Khuzestan, Iran – contrary to the original name, this place is not oppression, and it has become the city of lovers.[102]
Al-Diraz (Arabic: دراز) Diraz Diraz

(Persian: دراز)

Long.[103] A village stretched along the coastline.
Busaiteen Beseytin Beseytin

(Persian: بسیطین)

Similar to a name of a village in Khouzestan, Iran.
Al-Malkiya Malchiyeh Mal Chiyeh

(Persian: مال چیه)

What is it (for)? - The locals still refer to it as "Malchiyeh."[104] Furthermore, it is named similarly to village in Khouzestan.
Shahrakan (Arabic: شهركان) N/A Shahr-akan Old Town
Karzakan N/A Karz-akan
Shakhura (Arabic: شاخورة) Shahkhura Shah-khora

(Persian: شاه خورا)

آخور شاه (اصطبل پادشاه)

Stable of Kings

Jurdab (Arabic: جرداب) Gerdāb Gerd-āb

(Persian: گردآب)

Whirlpool
Salmabad (Arabic: سلماباد) Selmābād Selm-ābād

(Persian: سلم‌آباد)

Would translate as "the peaceful settlement" or "the place of peace," with "سلم" (Salm) meaning "peace" and "آباد" implying a settled or prosperous area.
Karbabad (Arabic: كرباباد) N/A Karb-ābād

(Persian: کرب‌آباد)

Would translate as "the settlement of sadness" or "the place of sorrow," as "کرب" (Karb) refers to "sadness" or "distress" and "آباد" again indicates a settled or inhabited place.
Dumistan (Arabic: دمستان) Dabistan[95]: 134  Dabistan

(Persian: دب اِستان)

The term "Dabistan" (دبستان) is a Persian word that typically means "school" or "place of learning."[95]: 134 
  • Dab (دب) refers to "learning" or "education."
  • -stan (اِستان) is a suffix meaning "place" or "land of."

So, Dabistan can be understood as "the place of learning" or simply "a school."

While the last known location of Al-Ittihad school (Persian: دبستان اتحاد ملی, romanized: Dabistan Ittihad Melli, lit. 'National Union Primary School') is known to have been in Manama,[40][50] it is possible that the school at some point may have been located here.

Al-Daih (Arabic: ديه) Daih (Arabic: ديه) Deh

(Persian: دِه)

Village[95]: 134 
Karrana (Arabic: كرانه) Kerrāneh Kerrā-neh

(Persian: کرانه)

The Coast.[105]
Barbar Barbar Bar+Bar

(Persian: بار بار)

Bar Bar - Dobār (two times) - The word 'bar' may have been repeated to confirm the arrival of shipments or foreign cargo to the shore.
Samaheej (Arabic: سماهيج) Samahīj Se-māhi

(Persian: سِه ماهی)

Three fish.[95] On the origins of the name Samahīj, al-Bakri quoting others says: "Samāhīj is from Persian se (three) and māhi (fish) and hence, 'the three fish'." The sound change in the final "i < y" of the Persian form māhi is rather pronounced locally "-j" which is a phonetic feature known as "aj ajah" and ascribed to Qudā-ah tribes as in the word Tamīmi (a person belonging to bani Tamīm tribes) realized Tamīmij.[95]: 22, 134 

Notable people

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  • Abdulhussain bin Ali Mirza (Arabic: عبدالله حسين بن علي ميرزا) - current Minister of Electricity and Water Affairs of Bahrain
  • Fatema Hameed Gerashi (Arabic: فاطمة حميد كراشي) - Bahraini swimmer
  • Munira Fakhro (Arabic: منيرة فخرو), a prominent figure among Bahrain's Ajams community, faced oppression as her efforts for liberal and democratic reforms were overshadowed. Despite her advocacy, she was often ignored and demonized, while the public gave their support to Islamist political parties. This shift in support ultimately empowered Islamist factions over more liberal or democratic movements in Bahrain, sidelining her vision for a more progressive political landscape.
  • Karim Fakhrawi, co-founder of Al-Wasat, considered one of the more popular newspapers in Bahrain by winning numerous awards
  • Ghada Jamshir (Arabic: غادة جمشير) - Bahraini women's rights activist.
  • Zainab Al Askari (Arabic: زينب العسكري) -Bahraini author and actress.
  • Ahmed Sultan (Arabic: أحمد سلطان) - Executive Director – International Offices & Business Development (Manufacturing, Transport & Logistics) at Economic Development Board (EDB) and former Sultanies band lead singer.[106]
  • Sonya Janahi (Arabic: سونيا جناحي) - ILO Governing Body Member, IOE employers VP Asia, Bahrain Chamber Board Member, University of Bahrain Board Member, Franchise Expert, Keynote Speaker. Achomi, Sunni background.
  • Khalid Fouad (Arabic: خالد فؤاد) - Bahraini Singer of maternal Achomi ancestry.
  • Khaled Janahi (Arabic: خالد جناحي) - Chairman of Vision 3, Member of Bahrain Economic Development Board and former partner at Pricewaterhouse Coopers. Sunni background.
  • Eman Aseery (Arabic: ايمان اسيري) - Bahraini Poet.
  • Hossein Asiri (Arabic: حسين اسيري) - Bahraini Achomi singer who sings in Bahraini Arabic, Farsi and Achomi.[107][108]
  • Neyla Janahi (Arabic: محمد القصاب) - Bahrain TV Presenter. Achomi, Sunni background.
  • Norah Al-Balushi (Arabic: نورة البلوشي) - Popular Bahraini Baluchi Actress, Sunni background.
  • Hussain Javad Parveez (Arabic: محمد حسين جواد برويز) - Bahraini Activist.
  • Ahmed Al-Bastaki (Arabic: أحمد البستكي) - Bahraini Artist.
  • Hanan Redha (Arabic: حنان رضا) - Bahraini Singer. Achomi.
  • Linda Janahi (Arabic: لِندا جناحي) - Chief of Corporate Services at Bahrain EDB.[106] Achomi.
  • Mohammed Al-Alawi (Arabic: محمد العلوي) - Chief of Marketing & Communications at Bahrain EDB.[106]
  • Redha Al-Ansari (Arabic: رضا الأنصاري) - Executive Director – Research at Bahrain EDB.[106] Achomi.
  • Dr. Ali Akbar Bushehri (Arabic: د. علي اكبر بوشهري) - historical researcher.[7]
  • Musa Al-Ansari (Arabic: موسى الأنصاري) - Secretary General of the Al-Ikha'a Association.[7] Achomi.
  • Youssef Amr Allah (Arabic: يوسف امرالله) - Administrative Member - Al-Ikha'a Association”.[7]
  • Jaafar Abdeen (Arabic: جعفر عابدين) - Member - Al-Ikha'a Association.[7]
  • Nasser Hussein (Arabic: ناصر حسين) - Member - Al-Ikha'a Association.[7]
  • Mahmoud Al-Qassab (Arabic: محمد القصاب) - Deputy Secretary-General of the National Rally Democratic Association.[7]
  • Samira Rajab (Arabic: سميرة رجب) - A Ba’athist political activist who identifies as a Bahrani Arab Ba’athist. Her mother is of Iranian descent, which may explain her Iranian-like appearance. She's known for her extreme pro-government role in the 2011 protests.
  • Mohammed Al-Bahraini (Arabic: محمد البحريني) - Bahraini Achomi Bastaki singer.[109][110]
  • Fatima Kaziruni (Arabic: فاطمة كازروني) - Bahraini host and actress.
  • Shaima'a Rahimi (Arabic: شيماء رحيمي) - Bahraini media figure and actress.
  • Mohammed Hassan Janahi - member of parliament.[67]
  • Hesham Abdulaziz Al-Awadhi - member of parliament.[67]
  • Mohamed Yousif Al-Maarafi - member of parliament.[67]
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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Estimated to be around 100 thousand.
  2. ^ States the release date is 1998-06-29, remastered on: 2001-06-22
  3. ^ Released on: 1990-06-25
  4. ^ a b c Referenced under more than one subgroup

References

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  1. ^ Bassiouney, Reem (2009). "5". Arabic Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 105–107.
  2. ^ a b c Holes, Clive (2001). Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. p. 135. ISBN 978-90-04-10763-2.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj McCoy, Eric (2008). Iranians in Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates: Migration, Minorities, and Identities in the Persian Gulf Arab States (PDF). The University of Arizona. ISBN 9780549935070. OCLC 659750775. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-08-05.
  4. ^ a b "International History Blog: The Ajam of Manama". 2015-10-30. Archived from the original on 2024-07-03.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kokherdi, Mehran. تاريخ جنوب فارس لارستان و بستك [History of South Persia Laristan and Bastak] (in Arabic) (1st ed.).
  6. ^ a b c d Peterson, John E (2013). "THE BALUCH PRESENCE IN THE PERSIAN GULF" (PDF). Oxford University Press.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au "تاريخ العرق الفارسي في البحرين" [History of the Persian race in Bahrain] (PDF). Al-Waqt (1346). 2009-10-28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-06-12.
  8. ^ Al-Tajir, Mahdi Abdalla (1982). اللغة و الاصول اللغوية في البحرين: The Baḥārnah Dialect of Arabic. K. Paul International. ISBN 9780710300249.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w ADMIN (2016-07-19). "Persian (Larestani/Khodmooni) Sunnis – A shaping force in Bahrain". Archived from the original on 2024-06-25. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  10. ^ Yarshater, Ehsan Persia or Iran, Persian or Farsi Archived 2010-10-24 at the Wayback Machine, Iranian Studies, vol. XXII no. 1 (1989)
  11. ^ Frye, Richard Nelson; Zarrinkoub, Abdolhosein (1975). "Section on The Arab Conquest of Iran". Cambridge History of Iran. 4. London: 46.
  12. ^ a b Stokes, Corinne (2023-12-01). "Performing Khaleejiness on Instagram: Authenticity, hybridity, and belonging". Arabian Humanities. Revue internationale d'archéologie et de sciences sociales sur la péninsule Arabique/International Journal of Archaeology and Social Sciences in the Arabian Peninsula. 18 (18). doi:10.4000/cy.11297. ISSN 2308-6122.
  13. ^ a b c "إلى إسماعيل أكبري... افتخر بعجميّتك ولا تبالي" [To Ismael Akbari... be proud of your Ajaminess and don't care]. مرآة البحرين (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 2019-09-02. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  14. ^ a b c d Mueller, Chelsi (2019-04-15). "Nationalism in Bahrain: From the Rise of Popular Politics to the Arab Spring" (PDF). The Lester and Sally Entin Faculty of Humanities, Tel Aviv University: 2–3.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "Historic View of Iranians in Bahrain". 2021-09-02. Archived from the original on 2022-06-20. Retrieved 2024-09-14.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h "من جيران إلى أجانب: الإيرانيون في البحرين في أوائل القرن العشرين". www.dohainstitute.org (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 2024-06-04. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Media, Salam (2016-05-15). "Report: Discrimination against the Ajam minority in Bahrain". SALAM DHR. Archived from the original on 2024-07-18. Retrieved 2024-11-01.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g Media, Salam (2016-05-15). "ملخص تقرير حول التمييز ضد الأقلية العجم في البحرين". SALAM DHR. Archived from the original on 2024-09-07. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  19. ^ a b c d "الجناحية /البستكية/العوضية/الكوخردية/الكرمستجية................الخ - صفحة 1". janahi-vip.ahlamontada.net (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 2024-09-12. Retrieved 2024-09-12. بس انا جناحيه و عمري ماسمعت احد من اهلي او من غير اهلي يقول ان احنا في الاصل عجم مو هوله !!
    انا مو منزعجه من هالشي لان عادي .. بس استغربت لاني ماقد سمعت بهالشي .. و الاهل كلهم يتكلمون هولي مو عجمي واعرف الفرق بين العجمي و الهولي"
    "انتوا بالبحرين العجمي عندكم يعني الفارسي الشيع انا ماودي اتطرق للمذاهب لكن لازم اوضّح لج
    لكن اذا جيتي لمصطلح العجمي عندنا فهو يعني الغير عربي مايعني فقط الفارسي الشيعي !! فهمتي علي !     [But I’m from Janahi, and I’ve never heard anyone, from my family or others, say that we’re originally *Ajam* and not *Hawla*!! I’m not upset about this because it’s fine… but I was surprised because I’ve never heard that before. My family all speak Hawla, not *Ajami*, and I know the difference between *Ajami* and *Hawla*.In Bahrain, for you, *Ajami* means Shia Persian. I don’t want to get into religious sects, but I need to clarify this for you. However, if you come to our term *Ajami*, it means non-Arab. It doesn’t only mean Shia Persian! Do you get what I’m saying?]
  20. ^ a b c "العجم السنة في الخليج لم يواجهوا تمييزاً عرقيا" [Sunni Ajams in the Gulf did not face racial discrimination]. مركز المسبار للدراسات والبحوث (in Arabic). 2013-09-15. Archived from the original on 2023-06-10. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  21. ^ Lindsey Stephenson - From Neighbors to Foreigners: #Iranians in #Bahrain in the Early 20th Century. Retrieved 2024-09-21 – via www.youtube.com.
  22. ^ a b c توکلی, غلامرضا. ایل باصری از تُرناس تا لَهباز [Eel Basri tribe from Tornas to Lahbaz] (in Persian). p. 12.
  23. ^ Project, Joshua. "Kurd, Kurmanji in Bahrain". joshuaproject.net. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  24. ^ توریستی, چهارگوشه-معرفی استان ها و شهر های ایران و جاذبه های. "شهر زیبای کازرون". چهارگوشه - معرفی استان ها و شهر های ایران و جاذبه های توریستی (in Persian). Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  25. ^ "آشنایی با آداب و رسوم مردم کازرون از شهرهای تاریخی ایران". www.beytoote.com. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  26. ^ Holes, Clive (2001). Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. pp. XXX. ISBN 9004107630.
  27. ^ Holes, Clive (2001). Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. pp. XXVI. ISBN 9004107630.
  28. ^ a b c d e Holes, Clive (2001). Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. pp. XXIV–XXVI. ISBN 978-9004107632. Thus the elements in the pre-Islamic ethno-linguistic situation in eastern Arabia appear to have been a mixed tribal population of partially Christianised Arabs of diverse origins who probably spoke different old Arabian vernaculars; a mobile Persian-speaking population, possibly of traders and administrators, with strong links to Persia, which they maintained close contact; a small sedentary, non-tribal community of Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists; a Persian clergy, who we know for certain, used Syriac as a language of liturgy and writing more generally, probably alongside Persian as a spoken language.
  29. ^ Netton, Ian Richard (2006-03-09). A Popular Dictionary of Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9781135797737.
  30. ^ Husain Syed, Muzaffar (2011). A concise history of Islam. Syed Saud Akhtar, Babuddin Usmani (unabridged ed.). Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. pp. 421–3. ISBN 9789382573470. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  31. ^ Smart, J. R. (2013). Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780700704118.
  32. ^ Houtsma, M. Th (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5. BRILL. p. 98. ISBN 978-9004097919.
  33. ^ Al-Rumaihi, Mohammed Ghanim (1973). "Social and political change in Bahrain since the First World War" (PDF). Durham University. pp. 46–47. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 Aug 2022.
  34. ^ Robert Bertram Serjeant (1968). "Fisher-folk and fish-traps in al-Bahrain". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 31 (3). SOAS: 488. JSTOR 614301.
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  36. ^ "أخذ رسول الله ﷺ الجزية من مجوس البحرين - سنن الترمذي". hadithprophet.com (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-09-07. «أخذ رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم الجزية من مجوس البحرين» [The Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, took the jizya from the Magians of Bahrain.]
  37. ^ "الموقع الرسمي للشيخ محمد صالح المنجد - 09- حديث مال البحرين". almunajjid.com. Archived from the original on 2024-04-14. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  38. ^ Jamiʽ al-Tirmidhi 1588
  39. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q DC, Arab Center Washington. "From Neighbors to Foreigners: Iranians in Bahrain in the Early 20th Century". Arab Center Washington DC. Archived from the original on 2024-09-14. Retrieved 2024-09-14.
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Further reading

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