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Antisemitism and higher education in the United States

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This article is about antisemitism at universities in the USA. For antisemitism at universities globally, see Universities and antisemitism.

Jews have faced antisemitism and discrimination in universities and campuses in the United States, from the founding of universities in the Thirteen Colonies until the present day in varying intensities. From the early 20th century, and until the 1960s, indirect quotas were placed on Jewish admissions, quotas were first placed on Jews by elite universities such Columbia, Harvard and Yale and were prevalent as late as the 1960s in universities such as Stanford. These quotas disappeared in the 1970s.

In the early 21st century, there was a resurgence of antisemitism, especially after the BDS campaigns in the early 2000s and notably after the October 7, 2023 attacks on Israel when anti-Israel activists and protestors were reported to have engaged in physical and verbal violence toward Jewish students and staff in American universities. American university administrations were criticized for failing to protects Jewish students and the president of Harvard, Penn and MIT were criticized for failing to clearly define calls for genocide of Jews as violating their universities' code of conduct. Some called for the genocide or ethnic cleansing of Jews living in Israel.

18th century and 19th century

Only one Jew, Judah Monis, received a college degree from an American university prior to 1800. Monis was given a job in Harvard to teach Hebrew on the condition he converted to Christianity. Despite having converted and married a Christian, he was not embraced by his Harvard colleagues.[1]

Due to the low proportion of Jews in the overall American population (a quarter of a million out of 63 million) according to Nathan Glazer "… before 1880 or 1890 there were too few American Jews for them to constitute a question".[2]

20th century

In the beginning of the 20th century, US administrators in elite universities in the United States sought to solve what was called to as "the Jewish problem" referring to there being too many Jews in campuses. Administrators restricted Jewish enrollment and created the modern admissions process to restrict the number of admitted students of Jewish origin. According to the Washington Post, every major section in the application process, including geographic diversity, legacy preference, the interview and freshman class cap were part of an effort to address "the Jewish problem" and reduce the number of Jewish students. Columbia University in New York City, Harvard, Yale and Princeton were among the first universities to restrict Jewish enrollment, following elite universities, hundreds of other US colleges restricted Jewish admission until the 1960s.[1]

According to Mark E. Oppenheimer, vice president of Open Learning at American Jewish university, universities were considering finishing schools for elite Protestant boys, Jewish students sought to use universities as an engine of social mobility and were less interested in the social activities of the university and instead preferred to invest in academic performance and studying, leading to a change in character of American universities which was perceived as a threat to the Protestant American elite.[1]

Jerome Karabel, a sociologist of the University of California wrote in "The chosen: The hidden history of admission and exclusion at Harvard, Yale and Princeton" that Jews were seen as socialist proselytizers by nativists as well as a genetically inferior race by some Americans. Jews were considered unacceptable by some elite social circles according to Karabel.[3]

 
Abott Lawrence Lowell by John Singer Sargent 1923

Efforts to restrict Jewish enrollment started in New York City, a city whose population was 30% Jewish in the early 20th century. In Columbia university in 1920 had a 40% Jewish enrollment rate according to Oliver Pollak.[4] Since most Jewish students at the time were poor, worked night jobs to pay their tuition and lived at home, Columbia required students to live in dormitories in campus as well as limited scholarships. Columbia also began to conduct interviews in admissions process and according to Oppenheimer, university representatives detected accents or telling signs of Jewish origin even if the name of the applicant was not clearly Jewish. According to Nadell, elite Protestants students began to abandon Columbia due to its changing culture, after the initiation of the program Columbia halved the number of Jewish students within two years.[1] In Harvard Jews composed about 22% of the student population in 1922. Harvard began a geographic diversity program to enroll students from states with low numbers of Jews. Harvard president Abbott Lawrence Lowell, according to historians James Davidson and Deborah Coe, was "the most significant proponent of restricting Jewish admissions".[5]

US admissions tests were designed to fit a White Protestant elite education with questions on Classical subjects as well as Greek and Latin which were not taught in schools in which the Jews and other immigrants learned.[1] Yale, Dartmouth and other universities introduced legacy admissions that favored the Protestant elite.[1]

According to sociologist, Stephen Steinberg, Jews were most commonly restricted through character and psychological exams.[2] Jews were often given descriptors that were in contrast to the values which the universities sought and those Jews who managed to prove they exhibited such values were considered "pushy". School administrators who were mostly Protestant would characterize Jews with stereotypes and prevented their entry to universities.[2]

Stanford University under President Marc Tessier-Lavigne admitted in 2022 of having limited the admission of Jewish students in the 1950s which he called "appalling antisemitic behavior". According to the Stanford committee, Stanford stopped or limited recruiting students from schools with high ratios of Jewish students. Between 1949 and 1952 following the introduction of the quota for example the number of students enrolled from Beverly Hills High School declined from 67 to 20 while Fairfax declined from 20 to 1. Stanford also misled investigations, parents and alumni who inquired for decades.[6][7]

In the 1970s quotas on Jews gradually disappeared and admission of students of Jewish origin rose in American higher education.[1]

In the late 20th century, Holocaust deniers were given a platform to run disinformation campaigns in multiple student run newspapers as well as through visits to universities. According to the ADL, through principles of academic freedom and student activism extremists and antisemitic rhetoric were allowed a say in university campuses. According to ADL this forced universities to directly fight antisemitism and extremism.[8]

21st century

In 2001 the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement began to pressure American universities to cut ties with Israeli academics and from Israel. Although such efforts mostly failed, the US Civil Rights commission issued a report in 2005 which states that "antisemitism persists on college campuses and is often cloaked as criticism of Israel". Jewish students were said to often feel isolated and targeted for harassment by BDS activists.[9][1]

In 2022 the American Jewish Congress released a report stating that a third of Jewish students felt unsafe or uncomfortable in campus due to their Jewish identity.[1]

In Autumn 2023, before the October 7th attack, a Palestinian literature festival was held on Penn's campus. Critics of the event pointed to controversial guests including Roger Waters who had called for the destruction of Israel as well as used antisemitic language.[10][11]

Following the October 7th attacks

Following the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel, there were protests led by pro-Palestinian student groups. In an article about the student protests, Jonathan Chait noted that most pro-Palestinian protesters do not "engage in anti-semitic harassment." However, Chait wrote that a Students for Justice in Palestine (SJP) statement celebrated the attack and claimed that all Israeli Jews were legitimate targets.[12] The organization is supported and financially sponsored by the American Muslims for Palestine, which according to the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, is linked to Hamas. A bipartisan group of lawmakers called for a federal investigation into the funding of SJP.[13][14] Columbia University and Rutgers University suspended the SJP chapter in their university in late 2023.[14]

In late November 2023, the Center for Antisemitism Research found that 73% of Jewish college students and 43.9% of non-Jewish students experienced or witnessed antisemitism in the 2023–2024 school year.[15] An August 2024 study conducted by Brandeis University found that one third of non-Jewish college students in the US embraced antisemitic or anti-Israel views.[16]

In 2023 the American Jewish Congress released a report that found that 44% of Jewish students were affected by antisemitism on campus. 25% of Jewish students avoided wearing or displaying items that could identify them as Jewish. More than 50% of Jewish students were excluded or felt excluded from other students more than once.[17]

Of the non-Jewish students targeted, 46% said it was because they were assumed to be Jewish. According to the research center only 38.6% of Jewish students reported feeling comfortable in universities compared to 63.7% prior to the October 7th attack on Israel. A majority of students, Jews and non-Jews reported feeling their campus administration did not do enough to fight anti Jewish prejudice. Only 45.5% of Jewish students said they felt physically safe and 32.5% emotionally safe in universities.[15]

The center also found that only 18% of American students underwent any training related to anti-Jewish prejudice compared to 55.8% having undergone DEI training.[15]

 
December 2023, antisemitism hearing in Congress

In December 2023, the Presidents of Harvard, MIT and Penn testified before Congress regarding the state of antisemitism in their universities and were asked if "calling for the genocide of Jews" is against the codes of conduct in Penn, MIT and Harvard. The three presidents answered that it was a violation depending on the context. The President of Harvard, Claudine Gay and president of Penn, Lizz Magill subsequently resigned following criticism.[10][18] In August 2024, Columbia president Minouche Shafik also resigned following criticism,[19][20] and this came alongside the resignation of three deans at Columbia who had sent text messages with antisemitic tropes.[21][22] In December 2023, the United States Congress launched an investigation into antisemitism at the American universities.[23]

In late 2023, the New York Times reported that some Jews in Harvard have stopped wearing openly Jewish headwear.[24] In the New York Times article, Mark Oppenheimer noted in light of the history of antisemitic quotas against Jews in Harvard, "To see newly resurgent antisemitism against this backdrop of fairly recent, wonderful acceptance is a very, very painful thing for a lot of Jews,". Dr Gay after her resignation apologized for her testimony in Congress as well as saying that chants heard in Harvard such as "globalize the intifada" and "from the river to the sea" are antisemitic and a call for violence against Jews.[24] One Jewish student told the New York Times that some students may have different definitions for their chants and gave the benefit of the doubt while another student remarked that after October 7 there has been a major shift and felt the campus was an alien place, saying his classmates explicitly praised Hamas and denied the rape and abduction of Israeli women.[24] A June 2024 report from a task force commissioned by the acting president of Harvard concluded that antisemitism is indeed a major issue on campus, and suggested several ways to combat it.[25] In August 2024, a federal judge "found plausible accusations that Harvard was deliberately indifferent toward Jewish and Israeli students who said they feared for their safety after facing severe and pervasive harassment," and he ruled that the university must face the lawsuit brought against them.[26][27]

In late 2023 a protest that began in the outskirts of Penn's campus resulted in the targeting of a Jewish owned restaurant in Philadelphia.[28][29]

In 2024, US President Joe Biden condemned antisemitism in campuses.[30]

Some pro-Palestinian students called for intifada,[31] as well as calling for Hamas brigades to kill Israeli soldiers. Some protestors called to burn Tel Aviv, a major Israeli city, to the ground. Anti Israel activists also sang "Oh Hamas, our beloved, strike strike Tel Aviv". Some students also chanted "Go Hamas, we love you. We support your rockets too".[32] The Jews of New York Instagram shared a video of a woman protestor with a sign reading "Al-Qassam's next targets" pointing toward a counter protest waving Israeli and American flags.[32]

Anti Israel protestors also called for Jews on campus to "Go back to Europe, you have no culture. All you do is colonize". A counter protest was taunted with calls of "Jews" and "Go back to Poland".[33][32] According to the Jerusalem Post, a Jewish counter protestor tried to stop anti Israel activists from burning an Israeli flag while another Jew was splashed with water.[32] The anti Israel protestors also proclaimed "From the water to the water (a reference to the Jordan river and the Mediterranean), Palestine is Arab" which is considered a call for the cleansing of the region from Jews and the denial of Jewish rights for self-sovereignty in their ancestral homeland.[32][18]

Jewish students in Columbia reported feeling unsafe, being spit on and feeling relief at leaving the university. A student told Jerusalem Post that they felt their student representatives did not represent their grievances.[31] A protestor yelled at Jewish students "The 7th of October is going to be every day for you!".[12] Seth Mandel wrote in Commentary that universities were teaching students that Jews must be supplanted from their homes because they represent a race that belongs elsewhere, which according to Mandel is the reason why Jews were told to go back to Poland by students in Columbia.[34]

The Anti-Defamation League graded 85 American universities in 2024 regarding policies to protect Jewish students from antisemitism on campus. 12 universities including Harvard, MIT, Stanford, University of Chicago, Princeton and others received an F. Two schools received an A.[18] Columbia and Penn university received a D in the ADL ranking. Brandeis and Elon received an A in the ADL ranking.[18][35] In September 2024, the Anti-Defamation League further rated universities with the highest reported incidents of anti-Israel harassment and attacks: Columbia University (52), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (38), Harvard University (36), University of California, Berkeley (36), University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) (35), Rutgers University, New Brunswick (33), Stanford University (30), Cornell University (27), University of Washington (26), and University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (25).[36]

Two major Christian universities - Indiana Wesleyan University (IWU) in Marion, Indiana and Colorado Christian University (CCU) in Lakewood, Colorado - issued a letter condemning campus antisemitism and promising to protect the safety of Jewish students on their campuses.[37] In July 2024, UCLA was ordered by a court to develop a plan to protect Jewish students on campus;[38] in August, a federal judge issued a preliminary injunction that the university must prevent pro-Palestinian protesters from blocking Jewish students from accessing classes and other parts of campus.[39][40] Also in July, University of Wisconsin suspended five pro-Palestinian groups from campus after calls to label Jewish organizations as "extremist criminals".[41] In August 2024, the US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights found that Drexel University failed to adequately address the anti-Jewish hostile climate on campus.[42]

In August 2024, New York University updated its discrimination policy so that speech that would be considered discriminatory when addressing Jews or Israelis will also be considered discriminatory when substituting the term "Zionist".[43] Columbia University restricted access to campus out of concern for 'reports of potential disruptions' at the beginning of the new semester.[44] Anti-Israel activists also vandalized Cornell University on the first day of classes.[45] Also in August 2024, MIT denounced the distribution of 'antisemitic' "Mapping Project" flyers at orientation.[46] MIT President Sally Kornbluth said that while she supports free speech, she thought the flyers promoted antisemitism, and made some students feel uncomfortable.[46]

In September 2024, University of Pennsylvania announced a new office to fight religious intolerance.[47] An independent investigation ordered New York Governor Kathy Hochul into antisemitism in CUNY called 'complete overhaul' of the system's policies relating to antisemitism;[48][49] Hochul furthermore directed CUNY to using the IHRA working definition of antisemitism in assessing antisemitism claims.[50] This was coupled with a report detailing a 10-month investigation into antisemitism at CUNY published by Former New York Chief Judge Jonathan Lippman also calling for an overhaul of CUNY's system in addressing antisemitism.[51] In parallel, CUNY Jewish students shared first-hand account of campus antisemitism with Congressman Ritchie Torres and New York City Mayor Eric Adams at a roundtable at New York City Hall.[52][53]

See also

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Strauss, Valerie (13 November 2023). "A brief history of antisemitism in U.S. higher education". Washington Post.
  2. ^ a b c "How Jewish Quotas Began". Commentary Magazine. 1971-09-01. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  3. ^ Karabel, Jerome (2005). The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-57458-2.
  4. ^ Pollak, Oliver B. (1983). "Antisemitism, the Harvard Plan, and the Roots of Reverse Discrimination". Jewish Social Studies. 45 (2): 113–122. ISSN 0021-6704. JSTOR 4467214.
  5. ^ Coe, Deborah L.; Davidson, James D. (2011). "The Origins of Legacy Admissions: A Sociological Explanation". Review of Religious Research. 52 (3): 233–247. ISSN 0034-673X. JSTOR 23055549.
  6. ^ Petri, Alexandra E. (2022-10-13). "Stanford apologizes for anti-Jewish bias in admissions in 1950s". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  7. ^ "Stanford apologizes for limiting admissions of Jewish students in 1950s". Washington Post. 2022.
  8. ^ "Schooled in Hate: Anti-Semitism on Campus". www.adl.org. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  9. ^ https://www.usccr.gov/files/pubs/docs/081506campusantibrief07.pdf
  10. ^ a b https://www.timesofisrael.com/university-leaders-grilled-by-us-house-on-campus-antisemitism-amid-israel-hamas-war/
  11. ^ Dugan, Emily (2023-09-28). "Roger Waters accused of repeated antisemitism in new documentary". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  12. ^ a b Chait, Jonathan (2024-04-22). "Why Anti-Israel Protesters Won't Stop Harassing Jews". Intelligencer. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  13. ^ Rod, Marc (2023-11-16). "Lawmakers move to cut federal funding to colleges over antisemitic activity, push for federal probes of SJP and AMP". Jewish Insider. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  14. ^ a b "What is Students for Justice in Palestine, the Hamas-supporting Anti-Israel Group Being Banned on College Campuses? | AJC". www.ajc.org. 2024-02-23. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  15. ^ a b c "You are being redirected..." www.adl.org. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  16. ^ Lapin, Andrew (23 August 2024). "Third of non-Jewish college students hostile to Jews or Israel, Brandeis U study finds". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  17. ^ "More than 4 in 10 Current and Recent College Students Affected by Antisemitism on Campus | AJC". www.ajc.org. 2024-02-29. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  18. ^ a b c d Goldman, David (2024-04-11). "ADL gives Harvard and a dozen other universities failing grades on campus antisemitism | CNN Business". CNN. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  19. ^ Allen and, Jonathan; Singh, Kanishka (15 August 2024). "Columbia University president resigns in wake of campus protests over Gaza war". Reuters. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  20. ^ "Columbia president resigns amid criticism over her response to anti-Israel protests". Times of Israel. 15 August 2024. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  21. ^ Singh, Kanishka (9 August 2024). "Columbia says 3 deans resign over 'antisemitic tropes' in texts". Reuters. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  22. ^ "Columbia says three deans resign over 'antisemitic tropes' in texts". Jerusalem Post. 9 August 2024. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  23. ^ "US lawmakers launch probe into anti-Semitism at top universities". Le Monde.fr. 2023-12-08. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  24. ^ a b c Hartocollis, Anemona; Peters, Jeremy W.; Goldstein, Dana (2023-12-16). "Feeling Alone and Estranged, Many Jews at Harvard Wonder What's Next". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  25. ^ "Harvard antisemitism task force finds 'dire' situation for Israelis on campus". Times of Israel. 27 June 2024. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
  26. ^ Stempel, Jonathan (6 August 2024). "Harvard University must face lawsuit over antisemitism on campus, judge rules". Reuters. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  27. ^ "US judge approves antisemitism lawsuit against Harvard, rejecting dismissal bid". Times of Israel. 6 August 2024. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  28. ^ "Philadelphia Jewish restaurant faces 'genocide' chants by hundreds of anti-Israel protesters". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 2023-12-04. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  29. ^ Reporter, Aleks Phillips U. S. News (2023-12-04). "Philadelphia Jewish restaurant targeted with "genocide" chants". Newsweek. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  30. ^ Miller, Zeke (8 May 2024). "In Holocaust remembrance, Biden condemns antisemitism sparked by college protests and Gaza war". AP News. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  31. ^ a b "'I'm ready to leave this campus': Jewish students at Columbia react to tidal wave of antisemitism". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 2024-04-20. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  32. ^ a b c d e "'Burn Tel Aviv to the ground:' Calls for violence continue at Columbia". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 2024-04-21. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  33. ^ "Columbia University cancels in-person classes to quell pro-Palestine campus protests". The Telegraph. 2024-04-22. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
  34. ^ "United States of Charlottesville". Commentary Magazine. 2024-04-22. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  35. ^ "You are being redirected..." www.adl.org. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  36. ^ Eichner, Itamar (16 September 2024). "These are the most antisemitic college campuses in the US". YNET News. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  37. ^ Rikki, Zagelbaum (24 July 2024). "Top Christian universities condemn campus antisemitism and pledge safe haven for Jewish students". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
  38. ^ Starr, Michael (31 July 2024). "UCLA ordered by court to develop plan to protect Jewish students". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
  39. ^ "UCLA can't allow protesters to block Jewish students from campus, judge rules". AP News. 14 August 2024. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  40. ^ Lenthang, Marlene (14 August 2024). "Judge rules for Jewish students, says UCLA can't allow them to be barred from accessing campus after protests". NBC News. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  41. ^ Michael, Starr (4 August 2024). "UWM anti-Israel groups suspended for call to treat Jewish orgs as 'extremist criminals'". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  42. ^ Starr, Michael (5 August 2024). "Education Dept.: Drexel fails to assess incidents making anti-Jewish hostile climate". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  43. ^ Lapin, Andrew (24 August 2024). "NYU issues hate speech guidelines discouraging students from targeting 'Zionists'". Times of Israel. Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  44. ^ Tress, Luke (13 August 2024). "Columbia restricts access to campus following 'reports of potential disruptions'". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  45. ^ Starr, Michael (27 August 2024). "Anti-Israel activists vandalize Cornell University on first day of class". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  46. ^ a b Starr, Michael (29 August 2024). "MIT denounces distribution of 'antisemitic' Mapping Project flyers at orientation". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 5 September 2024.
  47. ^ Stein, Linda (9 September 2024). "UPenn announces new office to fight religious intolerance in wake of anti-Israel protests". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 12 September 2024.
  48. ^ Otterman, Sharon (24 September 2024). "Report on Antisemitism at CUNY Calls for Changes Across the System". New York Times. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  49. ^ Tress, Luke (24 September 2024). "Report on antisemitism at CUNY college system calls for 'complete overhaul' to approach". Times of Israel. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  50. ^ "Statement From Governor Kathy Hochul on Judge Jonathan Lippman's Review of Antisemitism and Antidiscrimination Policies at CUNY". NY Governor. 24 September 2024. Retrieved 30 September 2024. Use the principles of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) definition of antisemitism as a guide to help determine what may constitute antisemitism, in line with Governor Hochul's 2022 proclamation identifying the IHRA definition as a valuable tool.
  51. ^ Van Winkle, Clint (13 October 2024). "CUNY faces call for overhaul in wake of antisemitism report". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
  52. ^ Cohen, Haley (24 September 2024). "CUNY Jewish students share experiences of antisemitism at roundtable with Torres, Adams". Jewish Insider. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  53. ^ CeFaan, Kim (23 September 2024). "Mayor Eric Adams holds roundtable with Jewish CUNY students to address antisemitism on campus". ABC NY. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
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