The Caddoan languages are a family of languages native to the Great Plains spoken by tribal groups of the central United States, from present-day North Dakota south to Oklahoma. All Caddoan languages are critically endangered, as the number of speakers has declined markedly due to colonial legacy, lack of support, and other factors.
| Caddoan | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Great Plains, North America |
| Linguistic classification | One of the world's primary language families |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-5 | cdd |
| Linguasphere | 64-B |
| Glottolog | cadd1255 |
 Pre-contact distribution of Caddoan languages | |
Family division
editFive languages belong to the Caddoan language family:
Kitsai and Wichita have no speakers left. Kitsai stopped being spoken in the 19th century when its members were absorbed into the Wichita tribe. Wichita stopped being spoken in 2016, when the last native speaker of Wichita, Doris McLemore (who left recordings and language materials), died.
All of the remaining Caddoan languages spoken today are severely endangered. As of 2007, both the Pawnee and Arikara languages only had 10 speakers, with the Caddo language only spoken by 2 (as of 2023).[1] Caddo and Pawnee are spoken in Oklahoma by small numbers of tribal elders. Arikara is spoken on the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota.
Prior to colonization and US expansion, speakers of Caddoan languages were more widespread. The Caddo, for example, lived in northeastern Texas, southwestern Arkansas, and northwestern Louisiana, as well as southeastern Oklahoma. The Pawnee formerly lived along the Platte River in what is now Nebraska.
Prehistory
editGlottochronology is a controversial method of reconstructing, in broad detail, the history of a language and its relationships, though it may still provide useful insights and generalizations regarding a family's history. In the case of Proto-Caddoan, it appeared to have divided into two branches, Northern and Southern, more than 3000 years ago (The division of the language implies also a geographic and/or political separation).
South Caddoan, or Caddo proper, evolved in north-eastern Texas and adjacent Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana. Other than Caddo, no daughter languages are known, but some unrecorded ones likely existed in the 16th and the 17th centuries.
Northern Caddoan evolved into several different languages. The language that became Wichita, with several different dialects, branched off about 2000 years ago. Kitsai separated from the Northern Caddoan stem about 1200 years ago, and Pawnee and Arikara separated 300 to 500 years ago.[2]
External relations
editAdai, a language isolate from Louisiana is known only from a 275-word list collected in 1804, and may be a Caddoan language, however documentation is too scanty to determine with certainty.[3] Adjacent to the Caddo lived the Eyeish or Ais—not to be confused with the Ais of Florida—who also spoke a language that may have been related to Caddoan.[4]
Some linguists believe that the Caddoan, Iroquoian, and Siouan languages may be connected in a Macro-Siouan language family, but their work is suggestive and the theory remains hypothetical. Similar attempts to find a connection with the Algonquian languages have been inconclusive. There is insufficient evidence for linguists to propose a hypothetical Macro-Algonquian/Iroquoian language family.[5]
Reconstruction
editSome Proto-Northern Caddoan reconstructions by Chafe (1979):[6]: 220
gloss Proto-
Northern
CaddoanPawnee Arikara Wichita Caddo arm *win- pí:ruʔ wí:nuʔ wi:rʔa mí:suh blood *pat- pá:tuʔ pá:tuʔ wa:ckicʔa bahʔuh bone *kis- kí:suʔ čí:šuʔ ki:sʔa egg *nipik- ripí:kuʔ nipí:kuʔ nikʷi:kʔa nibih eye *kirik- kirí:kuʔ ciríːkuʔ kirikʔa intestine *riyac- ré:cuʔ né:suʔ niya:cʔa nahč’uh leg *kas- ká:suʔ ká:xuʔ ka:sʔa k’á:suh liver *karik- karí:kuʔ karí:kuʔ karikʔa kánk’uh skunk *niwit ríwit níwit niwi:c wihit sun *sak-(h)un- sakú:ruʔ šakú:nuʔ sa:khirʔa sak’uh wood *yak- rá:kuʔ ’box’ há:kuʔ ’box’ haːkʔa/-ya:k- yaʔk’uh
For Proto-Caddoan, Chafe (1979) reconstructs the following phonemes.[6]
- stops: /p t k/
- affricate: /ts/ ⟨c⟩
- spirant: /s/
- resonants: /w n r/ and /j/ ⟨y⟩
- laryngeals: /ʔ h/
- vowels: /i a u/
Vocabulary
editBelow is a list of basic vocabulary of Northern Caddoan languages from Parks (1979):[7]
No. English Arikara Pawnee Kitsai Wichita 1 I -t- -t- -t- -c- 2 thou -x- -s- -s- -s- 3 we -sir- -cir- -ci- (incl. dual) -cíːy- 4 this ti ti tiʔi tiʔi 5 that i i i-, anini ‘by that’ haːríːh 6 chest waːkuːkáu? awaːkiːsuʔ nikokíːsu khiːkʔa 7 not ka- ka- ka- kírih 8 all čitúːʔ kituː akwác asséːhah 9 many ranihuːn kari nirahkina ‘there are many’ iyarhah 10 one áxkux ásku arísku ass 11 two pítkux pítku cásu, cúsu wicha 12 big rihuːn rihuːr nikin tac; Riwaːc 13 woman sápat cápat cakwákt kaːhiːkʔa 14 man wíːta píːta wiːta wiːc 15 person sáhniš cáhriks kírika ihaːs 16 fish čiwáhtš kacíːki nitát kaːcʔa 17 bird níkus ríkucki kuːcáke, kucáki ichir 18 dog xáːtš ásaːki anúːsa kicíyeːh 19 tree naháːpi rahaːpe yáku (wood); ayákwi tiyaːhkw 20 seed načiríːkuʔ rákiriːkuʔ nikiríːkʔu nikiːsʔa 21 leaf sčeːkaráːkuʔ kskéːkaraːkuʔ yakánu kíʔincaːcʔa 22 root kasukaːwíuʔ rákapahcuʔ ayakakunayahkasa ʔaskiːcʔa 23 bark haːkiskúːxuʔ ráːkickuːsuʔ yakatakuác tíːkʔacʔiyaːcʔa 24 skin sahnišskúːxuʔ ckáriːtuʔ arahkita kithaːrʔa 25 meat tsástš kísacki neːtanaːs, awánas ʔarasʔa 26 blood páːtuʔ páːtuʔ kwáːtu waːckicʔa 27 bone číːšuʔ kíːsuʔ kíːsu kiːsʔa 28 grease čisahítš kícahihtuʔ yahtkiríyu ‘hot’; kinasíːtu ‘lard’ kiraːsʔa 29 egg nipíːkuʔ ripíːkuʔ nikwíːku nikwiːkʔa 30 horn aríːkuʔ paːríːkuʔ, aríːkuʔ aríːku ʔarikʔa 31 tail nitkúːʔ ritkuːʔu nitkúhu kiːyaːkʔa 32 feather híːtuʔ íːtuʔ híːtuʔ niːsʔa 33 hair úːxuʔ úːsuʔ ickóːsu tiyaːcʔa 34 head páxuʔ páksuʔ kwitácuʔ íckoʔo ‘about head’ weʔekʔa 35 eye čiríːkuʔ kiríːkuʔ kiriːkʔu kirikʔa 36 nose siníːtuʔ icúːsuʔ icúːsu tisʔa 37 mouth haːkáʔuʔ háːkauʔ háːku haːkaʔa 38 tooth áːnuʔ áːruʔ anhíːsuʔ aːkʔa 39 tongue háːtuʔ háːtuʔ háːtuʔ hacʔa 40 fingernail šwíːtuʔ kspíːtuʔ kskwíːtu iskwicʔa 41 foot áxuʔ ásuʔ asúʔ asʔa 42 knee paːčíːšuʔ páːkiːsuʔ kirikisnayus kiːskwasʔa 43 hand íšuʔ íksuʔ íksuʔ iskʔa 44 neck číːsuʔ kíːcuʔ natíːnu kiticʔa 45 breasts éːtuʔ éːtuʔ isáːtu eːcʔa 46 liver karíːkuʔ karíːkuʔ karíːku karikʔa 47 drink čiːka kíːka kíːka -kikʔa 48 eat waːwa-a waːwa-a wawaʔánu, wáwaʔa -waːwaʔa 49 bite kaʔus kauc takocóhu ‘bite it’ -taʔa 50 see ut... e.rik ut... eːrik tuciʔeːriksu ‘he sees it’ ʔiːs 51 hear atka-u atka-u atkarahkus ‘hear it’ ʔaːckhéʔe 52 know ut...reːsiːš ir...raːʔiːta atihayaki ‘I know it’ wickaʔa 53 sleep itka itka itka -hiʔinck 54 die koːt hurahac híːksta ‘died’ -teʔes 55 kill koːtik kuːtik ki ki 56 swim huːseːriːtik huːceːriːtik nutoceríːtik ‘he swims’ -arhiya ‘to bathe’ 57 fly awanu awari niahak, -a- ʔiːtoː (+loc.)ʔa 58 laugh awaxk awask awas naʔaʔa ‘comes in air’ -wakharikikw 59 come in...a in...a ináhu ‘he is coming’ u-a... ʔa 60 lie ša sa sa ʔirhawi 61 sit kux ku wi ʔicaki 62 stand arič arik áriki ariki 63 cut kakatk kakatk kakatk -kack 64 say waːko waːku wáku wakʔa 65 sun šakúːnuʔ sakúːruʔ sakúːnu saːkhirʔa 66 moon páh pá cúhkwá wáːh 67 star sákaːʔa úːpirit nikwírik híːkwirikʔa 68 water tstóːxuʔ kíːcuʔ akicóːnu kicʔa 69 rain tsuhíːnuʔ ácuhuːruʔ nahacaʔa a...hiriʔa (verb only) 70 stone kanítš karítki kátanu ʔikaːʔa 71 sand čiwíhtuʔ kíwiktuʔ kiwíktu kiːchaːrʔa 72 earth hunáːnuʔ huráːruʔ hunáːna hiraːrʔa 73 cloud skarahkataháːnuʔ ckáuʔ nácton keʔeːrʔa 74 smoke naːwíːšuʔ ráːwiːsuʔ aːrosː ickweʔeːkʔa 75 fire čeːkáʔuʔ keːkauʔ ‘flame’ akiak yecʔa (n.); -keʔe ‘be a fire’ 76 ash itkanahtúːsuʔ karáktuhcuʔ itkáːnu ickhaːrʔa ‘dust, sand’ 77 burn in...kunistaʔa kahuːriktik, ir...kunstaʔa nahúniku, -hurik -hiri 78 path hatúːnuʔ, -sat- hatúːruʔ nuhyaːtáta ‘path goes’ hachirʔa; -yac ‘to be path’ 79 mountain wáːʔuʔ wáːuʔ arakauh nawaːreʔerhárih ‘where there are mountains’ 80 red pahaːt pahaːt kwahtnyú kwaːc 81 blue tareːʔuːx tareːʔuːs arayósː kawʔac 82 yellow rahkatáːn rahkataːr kisísː, kwanis narisis 83 white čiːsawatáːn taːkaːr kahcnú khac 84 black katíːt katíːt katinuk kaːrʔiːs 85 night nitkaháːnuʔ rátkahaːruʔ natki- ckhaːrʔa 86 hot in...awiristo ir...awirictu rahtátkiu ‘it’s hot’ wariːckhaːrʔa 87 cold in...raːnanaːxitu ir...raraːsitu nahenóːku ‘it’s cold’ -hkwic 88 sated kaːwačiːt kaːwakiːt ahinoːsana ‘becomes sated’ tawaːwi 89 good un...heːr ur...heːr ickuruːku, ickorók acs 90 round riwiru riwiru ariwíok táriwiːk 91 three tawihk- tawihk- táwihko tawhaː 92 grass húːnuʔ íːruʔ acíːu híːyaːkhaːrʔa 93 guts néːsuʔ réːcuʔ kiréːcu, kiriacu niyaːcʔa 94 wind hutúːnuʔ hutúːruʔ hutúːnu niweʔéːrʔa 95 foggy pihuː pihuː rúsca -ʔiskwaːwi 96 urinate kaːsuː kaːcuː wíahas ‘he urinates’ -aːhas 97 tie ut...tareːpi ut...tareːpu atonocakósk ‘I tie it’ -thiyaki 98 sing raːkaroːk raːkaruːk kurawáknu ‘he is singing’ kiraːh 99 spit out hawat hawat ahatkicowati ‘he spits’ hawati 100 cry čikak kikak akikakóhu ʔiriki
Notes
edit- ^ "Only 2 people alive can speak the Caddo language fluently. They hope a new program can save it". KERA News. 2023-03-15. Retrieved 2023-03-16.
- ^ "Caddoan Tree Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine", Texas Beyond History website, accessed 30 May 2011; Schleser, Karl H. Plains Indians, A.D. 500 to 1500: The Archaeological Past of Historic Groups. Norman: U of OK Press, 1994, pp. 147-148
- ^ "Adai." Native Languages, accessed 1 Jun 2011
- ^ "Who were the Ais." Texas Beyond History, accessed 1 Jun 2011
- ^ Mithun, Marianne. The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 305
- ^ a b Chafe, Wallace L. 1979. Caddoan. In Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun (eds.), The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment, 213-235. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- ^ Parks, Douglas R. 1979. The Northern Caddoan Languages: Their Subgrouping and Time Depths. Nebraska History 60: 197-213.
Further reading
edit- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Chafe, Wallace L. (1973). Siouan, Iroquoian, and Caddoan. In T. Sebeok (Ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics (Vol. 10, pp. 1164–1209). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted as Chafe 1976).
- Chafe, Wallace L. (1976). "Siouan, Iroquoian, and Caddoan", In T. Sebeok (Ed.), Native Languages in the Americas (pp. 527–572). New York: Plenum. (Originally published as Chafe 1973).
- Chafe, Wallace L. (1976). The Caddoan, Iroquioan, and Siouan languages. Trends in Linguistics; State-of-the-art report (No. 3). The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 90-279-3443-6.
- Chafe, Wallace L. (1979). Caddoan. In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.), The languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment (pp. 213–235). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-74624-5.
- Chafe, Wallace L. (1993). "Indian Languages: Siouan–Caddoan". Encyclopedia of the North American colonies (Vol. 3). New York: C. Scribner's Sons ISBN 0-684-19611-5.
- Lesser, Alexander; & Weltfish, Gene. (1932). "Composition of the Caddoan linguistic stock". Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 87 (6), 1-15.
- Melnar, Lynette R. Caddo Verb Morphology(2004) University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 978-0-8032-2088-1
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Taylor, Allan. (1963). "Comparative Caddoan", International Journal of American Linguistics, 29, 113-131.
External links
edit
- American Indian Studies Research Institute's Northern Caddoan Linguistic Text Corpora, Indiana University-Bloomington
- Dictionary Database Search (includes Arikara, Skiri Pawnee, South Band Pawnee, Assiniboine [Nakoda], and Yanktonai Sioux [Dakota]), Indiana University