Wikipedia

Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples

(Redirected from Canadian genocide)

The Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples[nb 1] is the genocide and systematic destruction of the Indigenous inhabitants of Canada from colonization to the present day.[7][8] Throughout the history of Canada, the Canadian government and its colonial predecessors have been accused of what has variously been described as atrocities, crimes, ethnocide, and genocide, against the Indigenous peoples in Canada.[9][10][11]

Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples
They Came for the Children
a publication by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
LocationCanada
TargetIndigenous peoples in Canada
Attack type
Genocide, ethnic cleansing, forced displacement, collective punishment, sexual abuse, starvation, forced conversion
AssailantsGovernment of Canada, Catholic Church, Anglican Church, United Church, and Presbyterian Church
Motive

Canada is a settler-colonial state "whose sovereignty and political economy is premised on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples and the exploitation of their land base", and therefore various concepts were used as justifications for the discriminatory practices since the very beginnings of the federation and its predecessor states.[8][12][13] The Canadian government implemented policies such as the Indian Act,[nb 2] residential schools, health-care segregation, and displacement that aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples into mainstream society while erasing their religious and culture identities.[15]

There is debate among scholars the exact definition and type of genocide that has occurred,[16][17][18] or if the term even applies to Canada's experience.[19] Canadian Courts and recent governments have recognized and eliminated many discriminatory practices. A period of redress began with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[20] This included recognition of cultural genocide,[21] settlement agreements,[20] and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.[22]

Scholarly debate

edit
Further information: Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples § Canada, and Genocide recognition politics § Canada

The scholarly debate surrounding Indigenous genocide in Canada is a complex and contentious issue.[23][24] Most Canadian scholars argue that the treatment of Indigenous peoples by European settlers and the Canadian government constitutes genocide,[9][25] while others contend that the term is not applicable in this context.[26][25]

The debate centers around the definition of genocide as outlined in the United Nations Genocide Convention, which includes acts such as killing, causing serious bodily or mental harm, and deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to bring about physical destructions.[27][25] One of the main arguments made by those who contend that genocide has occurred is that the government's policies and actions have had devastating and long-lasting effects. On the other hand, some scholars argue that the term genocide is not applicable in Canada,[25] as it is traditionally understood to refer to the deliberate and systematic extermination of an entire group of people like other genocides.[24] While it is undeniable that the Canadian government's policies and actions have had devastating effects on Indigenous peoples, some argue that these actions do not meet the legal definition of genocide.[28][29][30]

Some historians also argue that focusing on the term genocide detracts from the specific ways in which Indigenous peoples have been harmed and oppressed by the Canadian government, while others see the use of the term as a necessary acknowledgment of the gravity of the harm done, and avoiding the word or debating the legal definition is a form of Indigenous genocide denialism.[24][31][32][33]

Activists and scholars such as Phil Fontaine and David Bruce MacDonald had argued that the Canadian government should also officially recognize the various atrocities as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Canadian Historical Association had done, especially after the 2021 Canadian Indian residential schools gravesite discoveries.[34][35] In October 2022, the House of Commons unanimously passed a motion to have the Canadian government officially recognize the residential school system as genocide against Indigenous populations.[36][37]

Settler colonialism

edit
Main article: Settler colonialism in Canada
 
Fur traders, in what is now Canada, trading with an Indigenous person in 1777

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[38] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[39] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to dispossession of lands through treaties and displacement legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act,[40] the Indian Act, [41] the Potlatch ban,[42] and the pass system,[43] that focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education.[44]

Indigenous groups continued to suffer from severe racially motivated discrimination from their new colonial societies.[45] More recent understandings of the concept of "cultural genocide" and its relation to settler colonialism have led modern scholars to a renewed discussion of the genocidal aspects of the Canadian states' role in producing and legitimating the process of physical and cultural destruction of Indigenous people.[46][24][47] This is further expanded by employing Patrick Wolfe's analysis of settler-colonialism, as a structure (rather than an event) premised on the elimination rather than exploitation of the native population, creating a "structural genocide" of the Indigenous people of Canada.[48]

Significant incidences

edit
Further information: Indigenous peoples in Canada § Forced assimilation, and Human rights in Canada § Human rights abuses
 
Study period at a Roman Catholic Indian Residential School in Fort Resolution, NWT

The impact of colonization on Canada can be seen in its culture, history, politics, laws, and legislatures.[49] This led to the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families, the suppression of Indigenous languages and traditions, and the degradation of Indigenous communities. Other actions which have been highlighted as indicative of genocide include sporadic massacres, the spread of disease, the prohibition of cultural practices, and the ecological devastation of indigenous territories.[50] It can be argued that Colonialism and its effects are still ongoing when looking at current events.[49][51]

As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population massively declined.[52][53][54] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases,[54][55] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[56][57] Roland G. Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France.[58]

The most well documented incident against Indigenous Canadians is the Indian Residential School System.[59] Other examples include the forced relocation of Inuit populations during the cold war to propagate Canadian sovereignty,[60] medical segregation that led to poor conditions and lack of innovations being implemented,[61] the sterilization of Indigenous men and women,[62] and the modern day plight of violence and discrimination faced by Indigenous females being marginalized.[63]

The Beothuk

edit
Main article: Beothuk § Genocide
 
The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct as a cultural group. It is represented in museum, historical and archaeological records.

With the death of Shanawdithit in 1829,[64] the Beothuk people, and the Indigenous people of Newfoundland were officially declared extinct after suffering epidemics, starvation, loss of access to food sources, and displacement by English and French fishermen and traders.[65] The Beothuks' main food sources were caribou, fish, and seals; their forced displacement deprived them of two of these. This led to the over-hunting of caribou, leading to a decrease in the caribou population in Newfoundland. The Beothuks emigrated from their traditional land and lifestyle, attempting to avoid contact with Europeans,[66] into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation.[67][68]

Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk.[17] While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out as an unintended consequence of European colonization, others argue that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them.[69][70]

Such a campaign was explicitly without official sanction after 1759, any such action thereafter being in violation of Governor John Byron's proclamation that "I do strictly enjoin and require all His Majesty's subjects to live in amity and brotherly kindness with the native savages [Beothuk] of the said island of Newfoundland",[71] as well as the subsequent Proclamation issued by Governor John Holloway on July 30, 1807, which prohibited mistreatment of the Beothuk and offered a reward for any information on such mistreatment.[72] Such proclamations seemed to have little effect, as writing in 1766, Governor Hugh Palliser reported to the British secretary of state that "the barbarous system of killing prevails amongst our people towards the Native Indians — whom our People always kill, when they can meet them".[64]

Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemics

edit
Main article: 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic

Pacific Northwest indigenous peoples experienced several earlier smallpox epidemics, about once per generation after European contact began in the late 18th century: in the late 1770s, 1801–03, 1836–38, and 1853. These epidemics are not as well documented in historical records as the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic.[73]

The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic started in Victoria on Vancouver Island and spread among the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and into the indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau, killing a large portion of natives from the Puget Sound region to Southeast Alaska. Two-thirds of British Columbia natives died—around 20,000 people.[74]

While colonial authorities used quarantine, smallpox vaccine, and inoculation to keep the disease from spreading among colonists and settlers, it was largely allowed to spread among indigenous peoples. The Colony of Vancouver Island made attempts to save some natives, but most were forced to leave the vicinity of Victoria and go back to their homelands, despite awareness that it would result in a major smallpox epidemic among natives along the Pacific Northwest coast. Many colonists and newspapers were vocally in favor of expulsion.[75]

Some historians have described it as a deliberate genocide because the Colony of Vancouver Island and the Colony of British Columbia could have prevented the epidemic but chose not to, and in some ways facilitated it.[76][77] According to historian Kiran van Rijn, "opportunistic self-interest, coupled with hollow pity, revulsion at the victims, and smug feelings of inevitability, shaped the colonial response to the epidemic among First Nations"; and that for some residents of Victoria the eviction of native people was a "long-sought opportunity" to be rid of them; and, for some, an opportunity to take over First Nation lands. At the time, and still today, some natives say that the colonial government deliberately spread smallpox for the purpose of stealing their land.[78][79]

Residential schools

edit
Main articles: Canadian Indian residential school system and Sixties Scoop

Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996,[80] the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches,[81] ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes.[82][83] Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.[84][85] While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, abuse, and sexual abuse.[86][87] The negative effects of the residential school system have long been accepted almost unanimously among scholars researching the residential school system, with debate focussing on the motives and intent.[88]

 
Mohawk Institute Residential School

Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the Sixties Scoop, was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote: "You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child. There is something dramatically and basically wrong with that."[89][11] Another aspect of the residential school system was its use of forced sterilization on Indigenous women who chose not to follow the schools advice of marrying non-Indigenous men.[90][91][92]

Indigenous people of Canada have long referred to the residential school system as genocide,[93][94][95] with scholars referring to the system as genocidal since the 1990s.[96] According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a Eurocentric society, violated the United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952.[97][98] Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in international court for genocide.[99][100] Others also point to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which was adopted into Canadian law in 2010, where article 7 discusses the rights of indigenous people to not be subjected to genocide or "any other act of violence, including forcibly removing children of the group to another group".[101]

A legal case resulted in settlement of CA$2 billion in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples.[102] The executive summary of the TRC concluded that the assimilation amounted to cultural genocide.[103][104] This conclusion has been supported by other scholars, including David Bruce MacDonald and Graham Hudson, who also comment that the residential school system may also amount to more than just cultural genocide,[105] laying out specific arguments as to how the residential school system met the dolus specialis requirement of the Genocide Convention.[106] The ambiguity of the phrasing in the TRC report allowed for the interpretation that physical and biological genocide also occurred. The TRC was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a legal responsibility of the Canadian government that would be difficult to prove. As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open.[107][108]

Nutrition experiments

edit
Main article: First Nations nutrition experiments

The First Nations nutrition experiments were a series of experiments run in Canada by Department of Pensions and National Health (now Health Canada). The experiments were conducted between 1942 and 1952 using Indigenous children from residential schools in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, and Ontario.[109] The experiments were conducted on at least 1,300 Indigenous people across Canada, approximately 1,000 of whom were children.[110] The deaths connected with the experiments have been described as part of Canada's genocide of Indigenous peoples.[111]

The experiments involved nutrient-poor isolated communities such as those in The Pas and Norway House in northern Manitoba and residential schools[112] and were designed to learn about the relative importance and optimum levels of newly discovered vitamins and nutritional supplements.[113][114][115] The experiments included deliberate, sustained malnourishment and in some cases, the withholding of dental services.[116]

The Government of Canada was aware of malnourishment in its residential schools and granted approval for the execution of nutritional experiments on children.[116] It is now known that the primary cause of malnutrition in residential schools was underfunding from the Canadian government.[110] The nutritional experiments residential school children were subjected to neither provided evidence of completion nor contributed to the body of knowledge around nutrition and supplementation.[110]

Nutritional experiments conducted on Indigenous children in residential schools came to public light in 2013 through the research of food historian Dr. Ian Mosby.[110]

Sterilizations

edit
Main article: Compulsory sterilization in Canada

Compulsory sterilization in Canada has a documented history in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia.[117] In June 2021, the Standing Committee on Human Rights in Canada found that compulsory sterilization is ongoing in Canada and its extent has been underestimated.[118]

In Alberta the Legislative Assembly passed the Sexual Sterilization Act in 1928 to promote eugenics.[119] With the arrival of the Great Depression in 1929 sterilization efforts increased, especially against Indigenous people and immigrants, due to fears of jobs being stolen by immigrants and living lives of poverty.[120] Indigenous women made up only 2.5% of the Canadian population, but 25% of those who were sterilized under the Canadian eugenics laws – many without their knowledge or consent.[90][91][92] In comparison to the "2834 individuals sterilized under Alberta's eugenic policy, historian Angus McLaren has estimated that in British Columbia no more than a few hundred individuals were sterilized".[121] [122] The disparity between the numbers sterilized in the two provinces can be attributed in part to the tighter provisions of British Columbia's Sexual Sterilization Act.[122] Whereas the Alberta legislation was amended twice to increase the program's scope and efficiency, British Columbia's sterilization program remained unchanged.[123][124]

Displacement

edit
Main article: High Arctic relocation
 
Relocation from Inukjuak to Resolute (left arrow) and Grise Fiord (right arrow)

The High Arctic relocation happened in the context of the Cold War, the federal government forcibly relocated 87 Inuit citizens to the High Arctic as human symbols of Canada's assertion of ownership of the region. The Inuit were told that they would be returned home to Northern Quebec after two years if they wished, but this offer was later withdrawn as it would damage Canada's claims to the High Arctic; they were forced to stay.[125][126][127] In 1993, after extensive hearings, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation.[128] The government paid compensation and in 2010 issued a formal apology.[129]

Medical segregation

edit
Main article: Indian hospitals
 
The Coqualeetza Indian Hospital which was located in Sardis, British Columbia,

The Indian hospitals were racially segregated hospitals, originally serving as tuberculosis sanatoria but later operating as general hospitals for Indigenous peoples in Canada which operated during the 20th century.[130][131] The hospitals were originally used to isolate Indigenous tuberculosis patients from the general population because of a fear among health officials that "Indian TB" posed a danger to the non-indigenous population.[132][133] Many of these hospitals were located on Indian reserves, and might also be called reserve hospitals, while others were in nearby towns. Low salaries, poor working conditions, and the isolated locations of many hospitals made it difficult to maintain adequate numbers of qualified staff.[134] These hospitals also did not receive the same level of funding as facilities for non-Indigenous communities. Although treatment for tuberculosis in non-Indigenous patients improved during the 1940s and 1950s, these innovations were not propagated to the Indian hospitals.[132] From 1949 to 1953, 374 experimental surgeries were performed on TB patients, without the use of general anesthetic at the Charles Camsell Indian Hospital.[135]

Missing and murdered Indigenous females

edit
Main article: Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women

From 2016 to 2019, the Canadian government conducted the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women. The final report of the inquiry concluded that the high level of violence directed at First Nations, Inuit, and Metis women and girls is "caused by state actions and inactions rooted in colonialism and colonial ideologies."[136] The National Inquiry commissioners said in the report and publicly that the MMIWG crisis is "a Canadian genocide."[137] It also concluded that the crisis constituted an ongoing "race, identity and gender-based genocide."[138][139][140]

External videos
  B.C.‘s infamous Highway of Tears, CBC Archives, 2:32, 21 June 2006, reported by Miyoung Lee

The MMIWG inquiry used a broader definition of genocide from the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act which encompasses "not only acts of commission, but 'omission' as well."[138] The inquiry described the traditional legal definition of genocide as "narrow" and based on the Holocaust. According to the inquiry, "colonial genocide does not conform with popular notions of genocide as a determinate, quantifiable event" and concluded that "these [genocidal] policies fluctuated in time and space, and in different incarnations, are still ongoing."[141]

On June 3, 2019, Luis Almagro, secretary-general of Organization of American States (OAS), asked Foreign Affairs Minister Chrystia Freeland to support the creation of an independent probe into the MMIWG allegation of Canadian 'genocide' since Canada had previously supported "probes of atrocities in other countries" such as Nicaragua in 2018.[142] On June 4, in Vancouver, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said that, "Earlier this morning, the national inquiry formally presented their final report, in which they found that the tragic violence that Indigenous women and girls have experienced amounts to genocide."[138]

Reconciliation and acknowledgment

edit
Main articles: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada and Genocide recognition politics § Canada

Indigenous reconciliation in Canada is a complex and ongoing process that seeks to address the historical injustices and inequalities experienced by Indigenous peoples. This includes acknowledging the harmful effects of colonization, the Indian Residential School system, and the displacement of Indigenous communities from their lands.[143] Reconciliation also aims to promote healing, understanding, and respect between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in order to build a more equitable and inclusive society.[143]

A period of redress began in 2008 with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada,[20] and an apology by then Prime Minister Stephen Harper on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system.[144] In 2015, Supreme Court Chief Justice Beverly McLachlin said that Canada's historical treatment of Indigenous peoples was "cultural genocide".[145] In October 2022, the Canadian House of Commons unanimously passed a motion calling on the federal Canadian government to recognize the residential school system as genocide.[146][147] This acknowledgment was followed by a visit by Pope Francis who apologized for Church members' role in what he labeled the "oppression, mistreatment and cultural genocide of indigenous people".[148][149][150] Scouts Canada also issued an apology for "its role in the eradication of First Nation, Inuit and Metis people for more than a century".[151]

The National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, which opened at the University of Manitoba in November 2015, is an archival repository home to the research, documents, and testimony collected during the course of the TRC's operation.[152]

See also

edit
Main articles: Index of racism-related articles and Outline of genocide studies

Notes

edit
  1. ^ The word Indigenous is capitalized when used in a Canadian context.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
  2. ^ The term Indian has been used in keeping with page name guidelines because of the historical nature of the page and the precision of the name.[14] The use of the name also provides relevant context about the era in which the system was established, specifically one in which Indigenous peoples in Canada were homogeneously referred to as Indians rather than by language that distinguishes First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples.[14] Use of Indian is limited throughout the page to proper nouns and references to government legislation.

References

edit
  1. ^ "The Canadian Style". TERMIUM Plus. October 8, 2009. Archived from the original on February 4, 2022. Retrieved July 16, 2024.
  2. ^ "4.11 Races, languages and peoples, 4.12". TERMIUM Plus. October 8, 2009. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved July 16, 2024.
  3. ^ "Indigenous Peoples". University of Guelph. November 14, 2019. Archived from the original on July 24, 2024. Retrieved July 24, 2024.
  4. ^ "14.12 Elimination of Racial and Ethnic Stereotyping, Identification of Groups". Translation Bureau. Public Works and Government Services Canada. 2017. Archived from the original on April 3, 2024. Retrieved July 2, 2020.
  5. ^ McKay, Celeste (April 2015). "Briefing Note on Terminology". University of Manitoba. Archived from the original on October 25, 2016. Retrieved July 2, 2020.
  6. ^ Todorova, Miglena (2016). "Co-Created Learning: Decolonizing Journalism Education in Canada". Canadian Journal of Communication. 41 (4): 673–92. doi:10.22230/cjc.2016v41n4a2970.
  7. ^ "Genocide and Indigenous Peoples in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. June 6, 1944. Retrieved November 15, 2024.
  8. ^ a b Richardson, Benjamin (2020). Richardson, Benjamin J. (ed.). From student strikes to the extinction rebellion: new protest movements shaping our future. Cheltenham, UK Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-80088-109-9. Canada is a settler colonial state, whose sovereignty and political economy is premised on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples and exploitation of their land base' (2015:44). Many of the most egregious genocidal...
  9. ^ a b "The History of Violence Against Indigenous Peoples Fully Warrants the Use of the Word "Genocide"". Canadian Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-14. The Canadian Historical Association, which represents 650 professional historians from across the country, including the main experts on the long history of violence and dispossession Indigenous peoples experienced in what is today Canada, recognizes that this history fully warrants our use of the word genocide.
  10. ^ Woolford 2009, p. 81; Green 2023; MacDonald & Hudson 2012, pp. 430–431; Dhamoon 2016, p. 10
  11. ^ a b "Genocide and Indigenous Peoples in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. November 2, 2020. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024.
  12. ^ Williams, Kimberly (2021). Stampede: Misogyny, White Supremacy and Settler Colonialism. Fernwood Publishing. ISBN 9781773632179. Canada is a settler colonial state, it is also what hooks (Jhally 1997) calls a white supremacist capitalist heteropatriarchy...
  13. ^ Lightfoot et al. 2021, pp. 134–135.
  14. ^ a b "Terminology Guide Research on Aboriginal Heritage" (PDF). library and Archives Canada - University of British Columbia. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 14, 2024.
  15. ^ Miller, J. R. (January 11, 2024). "Residential Schools in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved May 22, 2024.
  16. ^ Dhamoon 2016, pp. 14–15.
  17. ^ a b Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). "Genocide and Historical Debate: William D. Rubinstein Ascribes the Bitterness of Historians' Arguments to the Lack of an Agreed Definition and to Political Agendas". History Today. 54. Archived from the original on January 31, 2013. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  18. ^ MacDonald 2015, pp. 411–413, 422–425.
  19. ^ Smith, Donald B.; Miller, J. R. (September 11, 2019). "No Genocide". Literary Review of Canada. Archived from the original on April 22, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
  20. ^ a b c "Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. 2015. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2015.
  21. ^ "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. May 31, 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 6, 2016. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
  22. ^ "Principles respecting the Government of Canada's relationship with Indigenous peoples". Ministère de la Justice. July 14, 2017. Archived from the original on June 10, 2023.
  23. ^ "The Charge of Genocide". Facing History & Ourselves. July 28, 2020. Retrieved November 14, 2024.
  24. ^ a b c d Woolford & Benvenuto 2015, p. 379.
  25. ^ a b c d "Ignore debaters and denialists, Canada's treatment of Indigenous Peoples fits the definition of genocid". The Royal Society of Canada. 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2024-11-14. The existence of a very small group of naysayers — the vast majority of them not members of the Canadian Historical Association and some of them openly engaging in residential school denialism — does not invalidate the fact that there is a general scholarly agreement, or broad consensus, that the term genocide applies to Canada.
  26. ^ Kay, Barbara (2021-08-16). "Barbara Kay: Historical association's genocide statement 'brazenly unscholarly'". National Post. Retrieved 2024-11-14. - Original copy of open letter.
  27. ^ Guematcha, Emmanuel (2019-06-04). "Genocide Against Indigenous Peoples: The Experiences of the Truth Commissions of Canada and Guatemala". International Indigenous Policy Journal. 10 (2): 1–23. doi:10.18584/iipj.2019.10.2.6. ISSN 1916-5781.
  28. ^ "Ignore debaters and denialists, Canada's treatment of Indigenous Peoples fits the definition of genocide". UM Today. 2021-10-26. Retrieved 2024-11-14.
  29. ^ Noël, Caroline (2019-09-11). "No Genocide". Literary Review of Canada. Retrieved 2024-11-14.
  30. ^ "Canada's Treatment of Indigenous Peoples Was Cruel. But Calling It an Ongoing 'Genocide' Is Wrong". Quillette. 2019-07-11. Retrieved 2024-11-14.
  31. ^ "Cultural Genocide: Legal Label or Mourning Metaphor?". McGill Law Journal. 2016-09-01. Retrieved 2024-11-14.
  32. ^ Akhavan, Payam (2016-02-10). "Cultural genocide: When we debate words, we delay healing". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2024-11-14.
  33. ^ Platt, Brian (2019-06-04). "'The g-word': Why it matters whether we call Canada's actions toward Indigenous people a genocide". National Post. Retrieved 2024-11-14.
  34. ^
  35. ^ Alhmidi, Maan (5 June 2021). "Experts say Trudeau's acknowledgment of Indigenous genocide could have legal impacts". Global News. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
  36. ^ The Canadian Press (28 October 2022). "Motion to call residential schools genocide backed unanimously". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 23 February 2024. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
  37. ^ Raycraft, Richard (27 October 2022). "Motion to call residential schools genocide backed unanimously". CBC. Archived from the original on 21 June 2024. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
  38. ^ Preston, David L. (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7. Archived from the original on March 16, 2023. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  39. ^ Miller, J. R. (2009). Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-4426-9227-5. Archived from the original on March 16, 2023. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  40. ^ "Gradual Civilization Act, 1857" (PDF). Government of Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 24, 2024. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
  41. ^ "Indian Act". Site Web de la législation (Justice). August 15, 2019. Archived from the original on May 26, 2024. Retrieved September 2, 2024.
  42. ^ "Potlatch Ban". The Canadian Encyclopedia. January 11, 2024. Archived from the original on August 16, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
  43. ^ What We Have Learned: Principles of Truth and Reconciliation (PDF) (Report). 2015. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-660-02073-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 7, 2021.
  44. ^
  45. ^ Snelgrove, Corey; Dhamoon, Rita Kaur; Corntassel, Jeff (2014). "Unsettling settler colonialism: The discourse and politics of settlers, and solidarity with Indigenous nations" (PDF). Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society. 3 (2): 11–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2017.
  46. ^ Woolford, Andrew; Thomas, Jasmine (2011). "Genocide of Canadian First Nations". In Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert (eds.). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. pp. 61–87.
  47. ^ MacDonald & Hudson 2012, pp. 429–431.
  48. ^ Dhamoon 2016, pp. 6–7.
  49. ^ a b Reynolds, J. (2024). Canada and Colonialism: An Unfinished History. University of British Columbia Press. pp. 3–10. ISBN 978-0-7748-8096-1.
  50. ^ Woolford & Benvenuto 2015, p. 374.
  51. ^ "Colonialism Is Alive and Well in Canada". West Coast Environmental Law. March 11, 2020. Archived from the original on June 3, 2023. Retrieved June 11, 2020.
  52. ^ Marshall, Ingeborg (1998). A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 442. ISBN 978-0-7735-1774-5. Archived from the original on March 16, 2023. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
  53. ^ Harring 2021, p. 99.
  54. ^ a b Northcott, Herbert C.; Wilson, Donna M. (2008). Dying and Death in Canada. University of Toronto Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-1-55111-873-4.
  55. ^
  56. ^ Laidlaw, Z.; Lester, Alan (2015). Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World. Springer. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-137-45236-8. Archived from the original on March 16, 2023. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
  57. ^ Ray, Arthur J. (2005). I Have Lived Here Since The World Began. Key Porter Books. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-55263-633-6.
  58. ^ Robertson, R. G. (2001). Rotting Face: Smallpox and the American Indian. Caxton Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-0-87004-497-7. Retrieved August 27, 2024.
  59. ^ Courchene, Mary; Phillip, Stewart; Sinclair, Senator Murray; Truth, Chair of the; Canada, Reconciliation Commission of (September 20, 2018). "Childhood denied". CMHR. Retrieved August 18, 2024.
  60. ^ The High Arctic Relocation: Summary of Supporting Information. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. 1994. p. intro. ISBN 978-0-662-22335-1. Retrieved August 18, 2024.
  61. ^ Lux 2016, p. 3.
  62. ^ Stote, K. (2015). An Act of Genocide: Colonialism and the Sterilization of Aboriginal Women. Fernwood Publishing. p. Intro. ISBN 978-1-55266-732-3.
  63. ^ Lavell-Harvard, D. M.; Brant, J. (2016). Forever Loved: Exposing the Hidden Crisis of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls in Canada. Demeter Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-77258-065-5.
  64. ^ a b Harring 2021, p. 87.
  65. ^ Rowe, F. W. (1977). Extinction: The Beothuks of Newfoundland. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. intro. ISBN 978-0-07-082351-8. Retrieved September 2, 2024.
  66. ^ Conrad, Margaret. History of the Canadian Peoples (Fifth ed.). pp. 256–257.
  67. ^ "Disappearance of the Beothuk". Heritage Newfoundland and Labrador. Archived from the original on September 7, 2017. Retrieved September 6, 2017.
  68. ^ "Extinction of the Beothuk: Aboriginal Peoples: Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage". www.heritage.nf.ca. Archived from the original on October 6, 2008. Retrieved January 17, 2022.
  69. ^ Knowles, R. P.; Tomplins, J.; Worthen, W. B. (2003). Modern Drama: Defining the Field. University of Toronto Press. pp. 169. ISBN 978-0-8020-8621-1.
  70. ^ Harring 2021, p. 85; Cormier 2017, pp. 39–60; Adhikari 2023, pp. 115–116
  71. ^ "The Beothuk of Newfoundland". visitnewfoundland.ca. January 5, 2013. Archived from the original on January 8, 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
  72. ^ "Holloway, John (1744-1826)". Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Website. August 2000. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved December 3, 2017.
  73. ^ Boyd, Robert T. (Spring 1994). "Smallpox in the Pacific Northwest: the First Epidemics". BC Studies. 101: 33–34. doi:10.14288/bcs.v0i101.864. Archived from the original on 9 July 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  74. ^ Boyd, Robert Thomas (1999). "A final disaster: the 1862 smallpox epidemic in coastal British Columbia". The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline Among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774–1874. University of British Columbia Press. pp. 172–201. ISBN 978-0-295-97837-6. Archived from the original on January 6, 2024. Retrieved February 10, 2021.
  75. ^ Lange, Greg. "Smallpox Epidemic of 1862 among Northwest Coast and Puget Sound Indians". HistoryLink. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2021.
  76. ^ Ostroff, Joshua. "How a smallpox epidemic forged modern British Columbia". Maclean's. Archived from the original on January 18, 2021. Retrieved February 9, 2021.
  77. ^ Swanky, Tom (2013). The True Story of Canada's "War" of Extermination on the Pacific - Plus the Tsilhqot'in and other First Nations Resistance. Dragon Heart Enterprises. pp. 617–619. ISBN 978-1-105-71164-0.
  78. ^ Van Rijn, Kiran (2006). ""Lo! The poor Indian!" Colonial Responses to the 1862-63 Smallpox Epidemic in British Columbia and Vancouver Island". Canadian Bulletin of Medical History. 23 (2): 541–560. doi:10.3138/cbmh.23.2.541. PMID 17214129.
  79. ^ Swanky, Tom (2019). "Commemorating Nits'il?in Ahan" (PDF). Tŝilhqot’in National Government. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved April 8, 2023.
  80. ^ Rheault, D'Arcy (2011). "Solving the "Indian Problem": Assimilation Laws, Practices & Indian Residential Schools" (PDF). Ontario Métis Family Records Centre. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 11, 2012. Retrieved June 29, 2016.
  81. ^ Woolford 2009, pp. 84–85; Akhtar 2010, p. 118; MacDonald & Hudson 2012, p. 428
  82. ^ Popic, Linda (2008). "Compensating Canada's 'Stolen Generations'". Journal of Aboriginal History (December 2007–January 2008): 14.
  83. ^ Akhtar 2010, pp. 113–114.
  84. ^ "Residential School History: A Legacy of Shame" (PDF). Wabano Centre for Aboriginal Health. 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 3, 2015. Retrieved June 28, 2016.
  85. ^ Tasker, John Paul (May 29, 2015). "Residential schools findings point to 'cultural genocide,' commission chair says". CBC. Archived from the original on May 18, 2016. Retrieved July 1, 2016.
  86. ^ Charles, Grant; DeGane, Mike (2013). "Student-to-Student Abuse in the Indian Residential Schools in Canada: Setting the Stage for Further Understanding". Child & Youth Services. 34 (4): 343–359. doi:10.1080/0145935X.2013.859903. S2CID 144148882.
  87. ^ Akhtar 2010, p. 115; MacDonald & Hudson 2012, pp. 431–432; Thielen-Wilson 2014, pp. 189–190
  88. ^ MacDonald 2015, p. 419.
  89. ^ Szumski, Bonnie (2001). Genocide. Greenhaven Press. pp. 155–158.
  90. ^ a b Pegoraro, L. (2015). "Second-rate victims: the forced sterilization of Indigenous peoples in the USA and Canada". Settler Colonial Studies. 5 (2): 161–173. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2014.955947.
  91. ^ a b Green 2023.
  92. ^ a b MacDonald & Hudson 2012, p. 445.
  93. ^ Thielen-Wilson 2014, p. 182.
  94. ^ Akhtar 2010, p. 119.
  95. ^ Woolford 2009, pp. 81–82.
  96. ^ MacDonald 2015, pp. 419–420.
  97. ^ Annett, K. (2001). Hidden From History: The Untold Story of the Genocide of Aboriginal Peoples by the Church and State in Canada (PDF). The Truth Commission into the Genocide in Canada. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2014. Retrieved March 25, 2017.
  98. ^ Harring 2021, p. 83.
  99. ^ Restoule, Jean-Paul (2002). "Seeing Ourselves. John Macionis and Nijole v. Benokraitis and Bruce Ravelli". Aboriginal Identity: The Need for Historical and Contextual Perspectives. Vol. 24. Toronto, ON: Prentice Hall. pp. 102–12. Retrieved October 28, 2009.
  100. ^ Akhtar 2010, pp. 133–135.
  101. ^ MacDonald & Hudson 2012, p. 444.
  102. ^ "Canada commission issues details abuse of native children". BBC News. February 25, 2012. Archived from the original on January 20, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2012.
  103. ^ "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. May 31, 2015. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 30, 2021. Retrieved May 30, 2021.
  104. ^ "Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1 Origins to 1939 – Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 5, 2017. Retrieved July 1, 2016.
  105. ^ MacDonald & Hudson 2012, pp. 430–431.
  106. ^ MacDonald & Hudson 2012, pp. 434–438.
  107. ^ MacDonald 2015, pp. 423–425.
  108. ^ Woolford & Benvenuto 2015, pp. 378–379.
  109. ^ Blackburn, Mark (2013-07-23). "Residential school commission received nutritional experiment documents in 2010". APTN News. Retrieved 2021-04-30.
  110. ^ a b c d Weber, Bob (July 16, 2013). "Canadian government withheld food from hungry aboriginal kids in 1940s nutritional experiments, researcher finds". The Globe & Mail. Archived from the original on February 13, 2021. Retrieved April 30, 2021.
  111. ^ Maher, Stephen (September 19, 2014). "Maher: It's getting harder to ignore Canada's genocide". the Calgary Herald. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014. Retrieved August 24, 2019.
  112. ^ "Isabel Wallace: Untested drugs harmed many in the past". Victoria Times Colonist. August 24, 2014. Archived from the original on August 20, 2023.
  113. ^ Mosby, Ian (2013). "Administering Colonial Science: Nutrition Research and Human Biomedical Experimentation in Aboriginal Communities and Residential Schools, 1942–1952". Histoire sociale / Social History. 46 (1): 145–172. doi:10.1353/his.2013.0015. S2CID 51823776. Project MUSE 512043.
  114. ^ Livingstone, Andrew (July 24, 2013). "Son defends scientist behind aboriginal nutrition experiments". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on August 20, 2023. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
  115. ^ Livingstone, Andrew; Weber, Bob (July 16, 2013). "Hungry Canadian aboriginal children were used in government experiments during 1940s, researcher says". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on August 20, 2023. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
  116. ^ a b "Aboriginal nutritional experiments had Ottawa's approval". CBC News. July 30, 2013. Archived from the original on February 5, 2024. Retrieved April 30, 2021.
  117. ^ "Indigenous women kept from seeing their newborn babies until agreeing to sterilization, says lawyer". CBC News. November 13, 2018. Archived from the original on May 19, 2024. Retrieved November 14, 2018.
  118. ^ Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada (July 1, 2002). "The scars that we carry : forced and coerced sterilization of persons in Canada. Part II / Standing Senate Committee on Human Rights; the Honourable Salma Ataullahjan, chair, the Honourable Wanda Thomas Bernard, deputy chair.: YC32-0/441-4E-PDF - Government of Canada Publications - Canada.ca". publications.gc.ca. Archived from the original on May 18, 2024. Retrieved October 20, 2023.
  119. ^ Grekul, Jana Marie (2002). The Social Construction of the Feebleminded Threat: Implementation of the Sexual Sterilization Act in Alberta 1929 – 1972 (Ph.D.). University of Alberta.
  120. ^ "Sterilization of indigenous women an act of genocide, new book says". CBC News. August 27, 2015. Archived from the original on October 28, 2019. Retrieved October 16, 2019.
  121. ^ Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada (July 1, 2002). "The scars that we carry : forced and coerced sterilization of persons in Canada. Part II / Standing Senate Committee on Human Rights ; the Honourable Salma Ataullahjan, chair, the Honourable Wanda Thomas Bernard, deputy chair.: YC32-0/441-4E-PDF". Government of Canada Publications - Canada.ca. Archived from the original on May 18, 2024. Retrieved October 20, 2023.
  122. ^ a b McLaren, Angus (1986). "The Creation of a Haven for 'Human Thoroughbreds': The Sterilization of the Feeble-minded and the Mentally Ill in British Columbia". Canadian Historical Review. LXVII (2): 127–150. doi:10.3138/CHR-067-02-01.
  123. ^ Ryckewaert, Laura (March 25, 2024). "Senate bill seeking to criminalize forced sterilizations raises concerns over unintended consequences". The Hill Times. Archived from the original on March 29, 2024. Retrieved August 18, 2024.
  124. ^ Grekul, Jana (2009). The Right to Consent?: Eugenics in Alberta, 1928–1972.
  125. ^ National Film Board of Canada (June 19, 2017). "The High Arctic Relocation". National Film Board of Canada. Archived from the original on July 28, 2024. Retrieved September 2, 2024.
  126. ^ The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953-55 Relocation. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. 1994. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-660-15544-9. Retrieved September 2, 2024.
  127. ^ Marcus, Alan R. "Inuit relocation policies in Canada and other circumpolar countries, 1925-60" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 2, 2024. Retrieved September 2, 2024.
  128. ^ Dussault, René; Erasmus, George (1994). The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation (Report). Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Canadian Government Publishing. Archived from the original on October 1, 2009. Retrieved June 20, 2010.
  129. ^ "Apology for the Inuit High Arctic relocation". Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada. September 15, 2010. Archived from the original on May 20, 2024.
  130. ^ Lux 2016, p. 7.
  131. ^ Lux, Maureen (August 2012). "We Demand 'Unconditional Surrender': Making and Unmaking the Blackfoot Hospital, 1890s to 1950s". Social History of Medicine. 25 (3). Oxford University Press: 665–684. doi:10.1093/shm/hkr152. Archived from the original on August 27, 2012. Retrieved January 30, 2013.
  132. ^ a b "Indian Hospitals in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on January 30, 2018. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
  133. ^ "A Brief Look at Indian Hospitals in Canada". Indigenous Corporate Training. June 3, 2017. Archived from the original on February 3, 2024. Retrieved November 9, 2021.
  134. ^ Lux 2016, p. 77–78.
  135. ^ "The health system in Canada's North is failing — but not by accident. 'It is designed to do what it is doing' | The Star". thestar.com. Archived from the original on October 24, 2018. Retrieved October 24, 2018.
  136. ^ Dalton, Jane (June 1, 2019). "Murdered and missing women and girls in Canada tragedy is genocide rooted in colonialism, official inquiry finds". The Independent. Archived from the original on May 15, 2022. Retrieved June 2, 2019. State 'actions and inactions and ideology' blamed for allowing attackers to get away with violence over nearly 50 years
  137. ^ Barrera, Jorge (May 31, 2019). "National inquiry calls murders and disappearances of Indigenous women a 'Canadian genocide'". CBC News. Archived from the original on June 4, 2024. Retrieved June 5, 2019.
  138. ^ a b c Abedi, Maham (June 4, 2019). "Why 'genocide' was used in the MMIWG report". Global News. Archived from the original on June 8, 2019. Retrieved June 8, 2019.
  139. ^ Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (PDF) (Report). Vol. 1a. p. 728. ISBN 978-0-660-29274-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 5, 2019. Retrieved June 5, 2019. CP32-163/2-1-2019E-PDF
  140. ^ Ivison, John (June 4, 2019). "At MMIW report's heart, a contradiction that's impossible to ignore". National Post. Archived from the original on June 5, 2019. Retrieved June 7, 2019.
  141. ^ A Legal Analysis of Genocide: Supplementary Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (PDF). www.mmiwg-ffada.ca (Report). May 29, 2019. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2024. Retrieved January 18, 2024.
  142. ^ Connolly, Amanda (June 8, 2019). "Organization of American States wants to probe MMIWG allegation of 'genocide'". Global News. Archived from the original on February 28, 2024. Retrieved June 8, 2019.
  143. ^ a b "Reconciliation". Canada.ca. May 22, 2014. Archived from the original on August 18, 2024. Retrieved August 18, 2024.
  144. ^ Benjoe, Kerry (June 12, 2008). "Group gathers for Harper's apology". The Leader-Post. Archived from the original on September 15, 2012. Retrieved October 2, 2009.
  145. ^ Fine, Sean (28 May 2015). "Chief Justice says Canada attempted 'cultural genocide' on aboriginals". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 26 August 2017. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
  146. ^ "Motion to call residential schools genocide backed unanimously". The Globe and Mail. October 28, 2022. Archived from the original on October 29, 2022. Retrieved October 30, 2022.
  147. ^ "Debates (Hansard) No. 119 - October 27, 2022 (44-1) - House of Commons of Canada". www.ourcommons.ca. Archived from the original on August 8, 2024. Retrieved August 8, 2024.
  148. ^ Maqbool, Aleem (July 30, 2022). "Pope Francis: Did the pontiff's apology in Canada go far enough?". BBC News. Archived from the original on May 22, 2024. Retrieved May 22, 2024.
  149. ^ Horowitz, Jason (July 30, 2022). "Francis Calls Abuse of Indigenous People in Canada a 'Genocide'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. Retrieved October 7, 2023.
  150. ^ Taylor, Stephanie (August 2, 2022). "After Pope called residential schools 'genocide,' House of Commons should too: NDP MP". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on October 30, 2022. Retrieved October 30, 2022.
  151. ^ Pimentel, Tamara (October 5, 2023). "Scouts Canada issues apology for role in 'historical harm' on Indigenous Peoples". APTN News. Archived from the original on October 7, 2023. Retrieved October 7, 2023.
  152. ^ "Home". NCTR - National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. January 11, 2021. Archived from the original on August 23, 2024. Retrieved August 18, 2024.

Works cited

edit

Further reading

edit
See also: Bibliography of Canadian history § Indigenous
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples&oldid=1257716448"