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Mawson Formation

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The Mawson Formation is a geological formation in Antarctica, dating to roughly between 182 and 177 million years ago and covering the Toarcian stages of the Jurassic Period in the Mesozoic Era.[2][3] Vertebrate remains are known from the formation.[4] The Mawson Formation is the South Victoria Land equivalent of the Karoo Large Igneous Province in South Africa (including the upper Clarens Formation desertic interbeds), as well the Lonco Trapial Formation and the Cañadón Asfalto Formation of Argentina.[1] The Volcanic material was likely sourced from the Antarctic Peninsula´s Ellsworth Land Volcanic Group.[5]

Mawson Formation
Stratigraphic range: Toarcian
~182–177 Ma
↓
South Victoria Land, including the main outcrop of the Formation, the Carapace Nunantak, that is located at the NW in the land
TypeGeological formation
Unit ofFerrar Large Igneous Province
Sub-unitsCarapace Sandstone Member[1]
UnderliesKirkpatrick Basalt (In part)
OverliesLashly Formation
Area28.5 km²
ThicknessUp to 400 m
Lithology
PrimaryVolcaniclastic mudstone
OtherVolcaniclastic gray & blue mudstone
Location
Coordinates76°54′S 159°24′E / 76.9°S 159.4°E / -76.9; 159.4
Approximate paleocoordinates60°06′S 46°30′E / 60.1°S 46.5°E / -60.1; 46.5
RegionSouth Victoria Land
Country Antarctica
ExtentUnknown
Type section
Named forMawson Peak
Named byBallance and Watters, 1971[2]
Mawson Formation is located in Antarctica
Mawson Formation
Mawson Formation (Antarctica)

Geology

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Stratigraphic column in southern Victoria Land Antarctica

The thin lacustrine interbeds of the Mawson Formation have received several names in literature, being known as either Carapace Sandstone or Carapace Formation, being a series of Freshwater environments developed during times when the Kirkpatrick Basalt stopped invading the zone.[6] The lava flow deposits of the Kirkpatrick Basalt belong to the Ferrar Large Igneous Province, developed in a linear belt along the Transantarctic Mountains, from the Weddell Sea region to North Victoria Land, covering approx. 3,500 km in length.[7] This event was linked with the initial stages of the breakup of the Gondwanan part of Pangea, concretely with the rifting of East Antarctica and Southern Africa, developing a magmatic flow controlled by an Early Jurassic zone of extension related to a triple junction in the proto-Weddell Sea region at approximately 55°S.[8] This eruptions phase includes the Dufek Intrusion, the Ferrar Dolerite sills and dikes, extrusive rocks consisting of pyroclastic strata, and the Kirkpatrick Basalt lava flows, with a total thickness variable, but exceeding 2 km in some places.[8] This Volcanism is not limited to the Antarctica, as it was recorded also in Tasmania and New Zealand, suggesting that these area where connected back then.[9] The Paleovulcanology analisis of the Mawson Formation have recovered Permian and Triassic material, which was eroded by lavas, with the presence of tachylite pyroclasts that imply rapid cooling by interaction with water.[10]

Paleoenvironment

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The Mawson Formation was described originally subdivided in two sections, that where identified as separate units. This, is due to a clear differentiation of two kinds of deposits: the so-called "Mawson Tuffs", representing lithified pyroclastic material and the "Carapace sandstones", alluvial/lacustrine, both deposited in a setting defined by Ballance and Watters (1971) as composed by “shallow, northeast flowing, ephemeral streams on a subsiding alluvial plain”.[2] The Mawson Formation was thus, heavily influenced by vulcanism, with tuff-breccia deposits dropped in a <100 m paleotopography valley in Coombs Hills, probably reduced from previous erosion events, while at Allan Hills a paleovalley of up to 500 m was present.[11] In this paleovalleys, massive production and accumulation of volcanic lahars in lowlands occur, in a similar way to more recent ones of places such as Osceola Mudflow at Mount Rainier.[11] Over this pyroclastic sequences, lacustrine beds developed temporally. Thus, beyond alluvial settings, ancient lakes, with hydrothermal influence, where developed and latter basaltically surrounded thanks to the relationships with the overliying Kirckpatrick Basalt.[1] This deposits mark the know locally as "Mawson Time", a section of the sedimentological evolution of the Ferrar Range, where volcanic material deposited in Allan Hills and Coombs Hills, while the Carapace Sandstones hosted an alluvial plain that recovered all the volcanic detritus, being latter flooded and developing a lacustrine ecosystem.[2][1] The described lacustrine system was, like the "Chacritas Paleolake" of the sister Cañadón Asfalto Formation in Patagonia, developed following the local rift in a similar way to the modern Lake Magadi in the Kenyan Rift Valley, as proven by the discovery of Chert like the one found in this african lake, what suggest that both, Carapace and Chacritas where likely alkaline lakes that had notorious influence of hydrothermal fuids.[12] Other more recent lacustrine/fluvial sequences have been described in new outcrops, like at Suture Bench and SW Gair Mesa, with abundant invertebrate and plant fossils.[13]

 
 
The Mawson Formation was developed in a similar way to modern Waimangu Volcanic Rift Valley of New Zealand, with Lakes Influenced by Hydrothermal vents. The Carapace Paleolake itself developed like the Lake Magadi in the Kenyan Rift Valley

The Formation includes two main locations: Carapace Nunatak in South Victoria Land, representing a deposit of interbeds dominated by sandstones of fluvial to lacustrine origin.[14] The main outcrop of this location is notorious for the presence of a 37 m Hialoclastite, volcanic material accumulated, likely on a local lake of the same depth.[14] This lake layers, called "Lake Carapace", host the only relatively complete fish remains recovered in the whole formation, and was likely feed by seasonal streams that brought the volcanic materials from sources located far away of the alluvial setting.[14] The "Lake Carapace" also shows temporal exposed paleosoils, with and without roots, as well with muds cracks, indicating seasonal droughts. This lacustrine-type deposit is also found on the second main fossiliferous outcrops of the formation, being in the Queen Alexandra Range in the Central Transantarctic Mountains.[15]

Sedimentary interbeds deposited over lava flows of the Kirkpatrick Basalt during the Early Jurassic splitting of Gondwana represent unusual freshwater paleoenvironments, with hotter conditions that allow to the diversification of the microbes (Archea).[16]

According to Barrett, "...the basalt-dominated Mawson Formation and tholeiitic flows (Kirkpatrick Basalt)...are included in the Ferrar Group." The Mawson Formation consists of diamictites, explosion breccias, and lahar flows, evidence of magma entering water-saturated sediments. The Kirkpatrick Basalts (180 Ma) have interbedded lake sediments with plant and fish fossils.[17][18]

Fossil content

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There abundant Fossils of microorganisms, as members of the group Archea and other who take advantage of the hydrothermal activity[16][6][19] The Acuatic fauna, dominated by invertebrates, includes a diversity of species complete enough to establish Trophic chains: there are traces of feeding, including a coprolite of uncertain affinity with a fish scale, conchostracan valves with traces of possible biotic borings and palynological residues linked with Ostracodan valves.[20]

Demospongiae

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Color key
Taxon Reclassified taxon Taxon falsely reported as present Dubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon
Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited.
Genus Species Location Stratigraphic position Material Notes Images

Demospongiae[21]

Indeterminate

  • Carapace Nunatak

All the sections

Borings in invertebrate valves

Holes of random pattern in valves. Boring Traces on local Conchostracan valves are common and suggested to resemble the boring traces of extant sponges, yet there isn't any evidence of Porifera fossils in the local beds

Crustacea

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Genus Species Location Stratigraphic position Material Notes Images

Carapacestheria[22][23]

  • C. disgregaris
  • C. balli
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Mackay Glacier

All the Sections

Carapaces

A Freshwater member of Diplostraca (Spinicaudatan). Related to the modern Cyzicus mexicanus and recovered in siliclastic interbeds, representing the most common fossil animal in the unit.[16][6]

Cornia[22][24]

  • C. sp. 1
  • C. sp. 2
  • Blizzard Heights

All the Sections

Carapaces

A Freshwater member of Diplostraca (Spinicaudatan). Represents the only Jurassic Records of the genus, know mostly from Permian and Triassic deposits, being a possible relict genus. Specimens recovered show different variations in coloration, what can indicate effects of hydrothermal influence on either the living animal or the dead carapace.[25]

Darwinula[26]

  • D. spp.
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Mackay Glacier

All the Sections

Valves

Common Early Jurassic Freshwater ostracod. The specimens of this genus cannot be identified to species level, yet bear resemblance with specimens from the same age of South Africa, as well as Triassic specimens from India.[16][6]

Isopodichnus[21]

  • I. isp. type A
  • I. isp. type B
  • Carapace Nunatak

All the sections

Braided Structures

Freshwater tubular braided Structures. Interpreted as traces of crustaceans searching for food in the lacustrine bottom

Lepidurus[27][26]

  • L. stormbergensis
  • Carapace Nunatak

All the Sections

Complete Specimens

A Freshwater member of Notostraca. Represented by specimens much bigger than forms (20 mm compared with smaller 10–12 mm breadth) from South Africa

 
Extant Specimen of the Genus

Lioestheria[28][22]

  • L. doumanii
  • Blizzard Heights
  • Brimstone Peak

All the Sections

Carapaces

A Freshwater member of Diplostraca (Spinicaudatan). Correlated with coeval East African and Indian lioestheriids

Protamphisopus[26]

  • P. wianamattensis
  • Carapace Nunatak

All the Sections

Complete Specimens

A Freshwater member of Isopoda. Shows affinities with specimens from the Upper Triassic of New South Wales

 
Extant Phreatoicus typicus, closely related with Protamhisopus wianamatthensis

Scoyenia[13]

  • SW Gair Mesa

All the Sections

Burrows

Burrow fossils in lacustrine environment, probably made by arthropods

Syncarida[29]

Inderminate
  • Carapace Nunatak

All the Sections

Complete Specimens

A Freshwater member of Syncarida.

 
Extant example of Syncarid

Arachnida

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Genus Species Location Stratigraphic position Material Notes Images

Oribatida[30]

Indeterminate

Storm Peak

Middle Section

Excavated areas filled with coprolites

Mite traces, incertae sedis inside Oribatida. The tunnels where recovered in wood stems, fern rhizomes and petioles.

 
example of Oribatida mite

Insects

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Fossil insect wings not described to the genus level are known from the formation.[13] The overall record of local insects include up to 50 specimens all recovered in lacustrine deposits.[31]

Genus Species Location Stratigraphic position Material Notes Images

Blattaria[31][13]

Indeterminate

Carapace Nunatak SW Gair Mesa

Middle Section

  • Tegmen of a fossil cockroach
  • Complete blattid insect

Indeterminate Blattaria Cockroaches

Caraphlebia[32]

C. antartica

Carapace Nunatak

Middle Section

Wings

A dragonfly of the family Selenothemidae. Was found to be related with the genus Liassophlebia, but the hind wing has severalweak antenodals in addition to the two strong, primary ones.

Coleoptera[33]

Indeterminate

Carapace Nunatak

Middle Section

Charred fragmentary beetle elytron

A Beetle with resemblance with archostematids (Schizophoridae, Catiniidae) and some adephagian beetles (Hygrobiidae, Amphizoidae) that have such elytra

Ephemeroptera[33]

Indeterminate

Carapace Nunatak

Middle Section

Abdominal segments and paired cerci

Indeterminate Mayfly nymphs

 

Hemiptera[31]

Indeterminate

Carapace Nunatak

Middle Section

Abdominal segments and isolated wings

Indeterminate Hemipterans

Fish

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Genus Species Location Stratigraphic position Material Notes

Archaeomaenidae[21][34][35]

Indeterminate

  • Storm Peak

Middle Section

  • One patch of scales
  • Coprolite

A Freshwater member of Archaeomaenidae.

Oreochima[34][35]

O. ellioti

  • Storm Peak
  • Blizzard Heights
  • Carapace Nunatak

Middle Section

  • Various specimens
  • Isolated Scales

A Freshwater archaeomaenid. One of the few fishes from this family recovered outside Australia, represents a genus that likely lived linked with Hydrothermal settings and was very proliferous on the local lacustrine systems. Represents a rather small genus.[35]

Fungi

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Genus Species Location Stratigraphic position Material Notes Images

Ceratocystis?[36]

Indeterminate

Carapace Nunatak

Middle Section

Hyphae

Parasitic Fungus, probably of the family Ceratocystidaceae. Infestation traces and fungal parasitic interaction on several plants. The morphology shown by this hypae and the colonization pattern in the woods resemble that of the extant Verticicladiella wageneri.[36]

Fungi[37]

Indeterminate

Carapace Nunatak

Middle Section

Hyphae

Parasitic Fungus of uncertain relationships. Infestation traces of thick-walled hypae where recovered on Brachyphyllum-type foliage locally

Fungi Traces?[21]

Indeterminate

  • Storm Peak

Middle Section

  • Galleries? in Valves

Galleries of an infesting organism in conchostracan valves

Palynology

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Mostly of the samples recovered at Carapace Nunantak are characterised by dominance of the Cheirolepidaceous Classopollis and Corollina. Two taxa, the Araucariaceous Callialasporites dampieri and the Pteridaceae Contignisporites cooksoni are also common palynological residues in local samples.[38]

Genus Species Location Material Notes Images

Alisporites[39][40]

  • A. similis
  • A. spp.
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with the families Caytoniaceae, Corystospermaceae, Peltaspermaceae, Umkomasiaceae and Voltziaceae

Aratrisporites[40]

  • A. sp.
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with Pleuromeiales. The Plueromeiales were tall lycophytes (2 to 6 m) common in the Triassic. These spores probably reflect a relict genus.

Araucariacites[39][40]

  • A. australis
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with the family Araucariaceae in the Pinales. Conifer pollen from medium to large arboreal plants.
 
Extant Araucaria. Callialasporites may come from a related plant

Baculatisporites[39]

  • B. comaumensis
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with the family Osmundaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Near fluvial current ferns, related to the modern Osmunda regalis.
 
Extant Osmunda specimens; Todisporites probably come from similar genera or maybe a species from the genus

Callialasporites[40]

  • C. dampieri
  • C. segmentatus
  • C. turbatus
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with the family Araucariaceae in the Pinales. Conifer pollen from medium to large arboreal plants.

Cibotiumspora[40]

  • C. jurienensis
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae inside Filicopsida.

Classopollis[38][39][40]

  • C. classoides
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales.

Contignisporites[38][40]

  • C. cooksoni
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Spores

Affinities with the Pteridaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Forest ferns from humid ground locations.
 
Extant Pityrogramma specimens; Contignisporites probably come from similar genera or maybe a species in the genus

Corollina[38][40]

  • C. spp.
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales.

Cupressacites[39][40]

  • C. ramachandrae
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with Cupressaceae.

Cyathidites[39]

  • C. australis
  • C. minor
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with the family Cyatheaceae or Adiantaceae. Arboreal fern spores.

 
Extant Cyathea; Cyathidites probably come from similar genera

Dictyophyllitides[40]

  • D. harrisi
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with the family Schizaeaceae, Dicksoniaceae or Matoniaceae.

Exesipollenites[40]

  • E. spp.
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales.

Ginkgocycadophytus[39]

  • G. nitidus
  • Carapace Nunatak

Pollen

Affinities with the family Karkeniaceae and Ginkgoaceae.

 
Extant Ginkgo, the only surviving member of the Ginkgoaceae. Monosulcites pollen is similar to the pollen of this extant species.

Inaperturopollenites[39]

  • I. limbatus
  • Carapace Nunatak

Pollen

Affinities with Cupressaceae.

Ischyosporites[39][40]

  • I. crateris
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Spores

Uncertain peridophyte affinities

Neoraistrickia[40]

  • N. spp.
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with the Selaginellaceae. Herbaceous lycophyte flora, similar to ferns, found in humid settings.

 
Extant Selaginella, typical example of Selaginellaceae. Genera like Neoraistrickia probably come from a similar or a related Plant

Osmundacidites[39]

  • O. senectus
  • O. wellmanii
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Spores

Affinities with the family Osmundaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Near fluvial current ferns, related to the modern Osmunda regalis.

Pinuspollenites[40]

  • P. globosaccus
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with the family Pinaceae in the Pinopsida. Conifer pollen from medium to large arboreal plants.
 
Extant Picea. Pinuspollenites maybe come from a related plant

Podosporites[40]

  • P. variabilis
  • Carapace Nunatak

Pollen

Affinities with the family Podocarpaceae. Occasional bryophyte and lycophyte spores are found along with consistent occurrences of Podosporites variabilis

 
Extant Podocarpus. Podosporites maybe come from a related plant

Protohaploxypinus[40]

  • P. sp.
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Pollen

Affinities with the family Pinaceae in the Pinopsida. Conifer pollen from medium to large arboreal plants.

Puntactosporites[40]

  • P. scabratus
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Uncertain peridophyte affinities

Retitriletes[40]

  • R. austroclavatidites
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with the Lycopodiaceae.

Sculptisporis[40]

  • S. moretonensis
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with the family Sphagnaceae. "Peat moss" spores, related to genera such as Sphagnum that can store large amounts of water.

 
Extant Sphagnum specimens; Sculptisporis probably come from similar genera

Striatella[40]

  • S. seebergensis
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with the Pteridaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Forest ferns from humid ground locations.

Todisporites[39][40]

  • T. minor
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Affinities with the Pteridaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Forest ferns from humid ground locations.

Trilobosporites[40]

  • T. antiquus
  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak
  • Coalsack Bluff

Spores

Affinities with the genus Dicksoniaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Tree fern spores.

 
Extant Lophosoria specimens; Trilobosporites probably come from similar genera

Verrucosisporites[40]

  • V. varians
  • Carapace Nunatak

Spores

Uncertain peridophyte affinities

Vitreisporites[40]

  • V. signatus
  • Carapace Nunatak

Pollen

Affinities with the Caytoniaceae

Megaflora

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One of the best preserved fossil flora of the Antarctic. Nearly all the floral remains where recovered from Siliclastic interbeds, being mostly of them Silidified.[41] A large assamblage of fossil trunks, with diameters between 8-23 cm and possible arthropod tunnels, are know from Suture Bench.[13]

Genus Species Location Material Notes Images

Agathoxylon[42][43][44]

  • A. pseudoparenchymatosum
  • A. sp.
  • Carapace Nunantak
  • Mt. Fazio, Mesa Range
  • Haban Spur, Mesa Range

Fossil Wood

Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales.

Brachyoxylon[42][43][44]

  • B. sp. cf. B. currumilii
  • B. sp.
  • Carapace Nunantak
  • Mt. Fazio, Mesa Range

Fossil Wood

Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales.

Brachyphyllum[45][46][12]

B. spp.

Carapace Nunatak

Several isolated Branched Shoots

A member of the family Cheirolepidiaceae. Associated with Classostrobus cones.[12]

Chimaerostrobus[47]

C. minutus

Carapace Nunatak

Single Pollen Cone

A conifer pollen cone of uncertain Relationships. Chimaerostrobus is reminiscent of extant Araucariaceae and several extinct taxa such as Kobalostrobus and Voltziales.[47]

Cladophlebis[31][48]

C. oblonga

Carapace Nunantak

Isolated Pinnae

A Fern of the family Osmundaceae. Some specimens where reworked from the Hanson Formation to the Mawson Formation. Linked with the tree fern genus Osmundacaulis

Classostrobus[12]

C. elliotii

Carapace Nunatak

Five permineralized pollen cones

A member of the Cheirolepidiaceae. More than five Brachyphyllum-type leaves where found in close association with these cones.[12]

Coniopteris[31]

C. hymenophylloides

Carapace Nunantak

Isolated Pinnae

A Fern of the family Polypodiales inside Polypodiidae. Common cosmopolitan Mesozoic fern genus. Recent research has reinterpreted it a stem group of the Polypodiales (Closely related with the extant genera Dennstaedtia, Lindsaea, and Odontosoria).[49]

 
Coniopteris specimen

Dictyozamites[31]

D. sp. cf. minisculus

Carapace Nunatak

Leaflets

A cycadophyte of the family Bennettitales.

Elatocladus[48]

E. confertus

Carapace Nunatak

Branched Shoots

A member of the family Cupressaceae. Related to specimens found in the Middle Jurassic of Hope Bay, Graham Land. Probably represent belong to the Conifer Austrohamia from the Lower Jurassic of Argentina and China.

Marchantites[48]

M. mawsonii

Carapace Nunantak

Isolated Thalli

A liverwort of the family Marchantiales. Some specimens where reworked from the Hanson Formation to the Mawson Formation. This liverwort is related to modern humid-environment genera.

 
Example of extant relative of Marchantites, Marchantia
Mixoxylon[44] M. jeffersonii Mt. Fazio, Mesa Range Fossil Wood Spermatophyte Wood, probably related to Bennettitales or Cycadales and previously know only from Cretaceous strata, suggesting the Antarctic Floral Biome appeared already in the Jurassic

Nothodacrium[50][51]

N. warreni

  • Carapace Nunatak
  • Storm Peak

Cutinised and fertile material

A member of the family Voltziales. A genus with Resemblance with the extant Dacrydium that was referred to Podocarpaceae, yet a more recent work found it to be just a convergently evolved relative of Telemachus.[50]

Otozamites[45][46]

O. antarcticus

Carapace Nunatak

Leaflets

A cycadophyte of the family Bennettitales.

 
Example of Otozamites specimen

Pagiophyllum[45][46]

P. spp.

Carapace Nunantak

Single Branched Shoot

A member of the Pinales of the family Araucariaceae. Representative of the presence of arboreal to arbustive flora.

 
Example of Pagiophyllum specimen

Podostrobus[50][51]

P. warrenii

Carapace Nunatak

Single cone

A member of the family Voltziales. Originally assigned to the Cheirolepidiaceae, was later suggested to share affinities with the Podocarpaceae, and then found to be a member of Voltziales. Likely represents the cone of the same conifer that produced the Nothodacrium foliage, as convergently resembles cones from extant Microcachrys and Dacrydium.[50]

Protocupressinoxylon[44][52]

P. spp.

  • Coombs Hills
  • Storm Peak
  • Mt. Fazio, Mesa Range

Fossil Wood

A member of the family Cupressaceae.

Polyphacelus[53][54]

P. stormensis

Storm Peak

Silicified rachides[53]

A Polypodiopsidan of the family Dipteridaceae. Closely related to Clathropteris meniscoides.

Zamites[45][46]

Z. spp.

Carapace Nunatak

Leaflets

Spermatophyta incertae sedis[16][6]

 
Example of Zamites specimen

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d Ross, P. S.; White, J. D.; McClintock, M. (2008). "Geological evolution of the Coombs–Allan Hills area, Ferrar large igneous province, Antarctica: Debris avalanches, mafic pyroclastic density currents, phreatocauldrons". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 172 (2): 38–60. Bibcode:2008JVGR..172...38R. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.11.011. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  2. ^ a b c d Ballance, P.F.; Watters, W.A. (1971). "The Mawson Diamictite and the Carapace Sandstone, formations of the Ferrar Group at Allan Hills and Carapace Nunatak, Victoria Land, Antarctica". N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys. 14 (3): 512–527. Bibcode:1971NZJGG..14..512B. doi:10.1080/00288306.1971.10421945.
  3. ^ Burgess, S.D.; Bowring, S.A.; Fleming, T.H.; Elliot, D.H. (2015). "High-precision geochronology links the Ferrar large igneous province with early Jurassic ocean anoxia and biotic crisis". Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 415 (1): 90–99. Bibcode:2015E&PSL.415...90B. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.01.037. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
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