Wikipedia

Carbon sink

(Redirected from Carbon pool)
This article is about storage reservoirs for carbon. For the processes involved for storing carbon for a long time, see carbon sequestration.

A carbon sink is a natural or artificial carbon sequestration process that "removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere".[2]: 2249  These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle. An overarching term is carbon pool, which is all the places where carbon on Earth can be, i.e. the atmosphere, oceans, soil, florae, fossil fuel reservoirs and so forth. A carbon sink is a type of carbon pool that has the capability to take up more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.

Carbon sinks (green bars on the right) remove carbon from the atmosphere, whereas carbon sources (greenhouse gas emissions) (grey bars on the left) add them. Since the 1850s, there are more carbon sources than sinks and therefore the carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere is rising.[1]

Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean.[3] Soil is an important carbon storage medium. Much of the organic carbon retained in the soil of agricultural areas has been depleted due to intensive farming. Blue carbon designates carbon that is fixed via certain marine ecosystems. Coastal blue carbon includes mangroves, salt marshes and seagrasses. These make up a majority of ocean plant life and store large quantities of carbon. Deep blue carbon is located in international waters and includes carbon contained in "continental shelf waters, deep-sea waters and the sea floor beneath them".[4]

For climate change mitigation purposes, the maintenance and enhancement of natural carbon sinks, mainly soils and forests, is important.[5] [6] In the past, human practices like deforestation and industrial agriculture have depleted natural carbon sinks. This kind of land use change has been one of the causes of climate change.

Definition

edit

In the context of climate change and in particular mitigation, a sink is defined as "Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere".[2]: 2249 

In the case of non-CO2 greenhouse gases, sinks need not store the gas. Instead they can break it down into substances that have a reduced effect on global warming. For example, nitrous oxide can be reduced to harmless N2.[7][8]

Related terms are "carbon pool, reservoir, sequestration, source and uptake".[2]: 2249  The same publication defines carbon pool as "a  reservoir in the Earth system where elements, such as carbon [...], reside in various chemical forms for a period of time."[2]: 2244 

Both carbon pools and carbon sinks are important concepts in understanding the carbon cycle, but they refer to slightly different things. A carbon pool can be thought of as the overarching term, and carbon sink is then a particular type of carbon pool:[9] A carbon pool is all the places where carbon can be stored (for example the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and fossil fuels).[2]: 2244 

Types

edit

The amount of carbon dioxide varies naturally in a dynamic equilibrium with photosynthesis of land plants. The natural carbon sinks are:

  • Soil is a carbon store and active carbon sink.[10]
  • Photosynthesis by terrestrial plants with grass and trees allows them to serve as carbon sinks during growing seasons.
  • Absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans via solubility and biological pumps.

Artificial carbon sinks are those that store carbon in building materials or deep underground (geologic carbon sequestration).[11][12] No major artificial systems remove carbon from the atmosphere on a large scale yet.[13]

Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset.[14]

Natural carbon sinks

edit
 
This diagram of the fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, soil and oceans in billions of tons of carbon per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions in billions of tons of carbon per year. White numbers indicate stored carbon.
Main article: Carbon sequestration

Soils

edit

Soils represent a short to long-term carbon storage medium and contain more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere combined.[15][16][17] Plant litter and other biomass including charcoal accumulates as organic matter in soils, and is degraded by chemical weathering and biological degradation. More recalcitrant organic carbon polymers such as cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and terpenoids are collectively retained as humus.[18]

Organic matter tends to accumulate in litter and soils of colder regions such as the boreal forests of North America and the Taiga of Russia. Leaf litter and humus are rapidly oxidized and poorly retained in sub-tropical and tropical climate conditions due to high temperatures and extensive leaching by rainfall. Areas, where shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture are practiced, are generally only fertile for two to three years before they are abandoned. These tropical jungles are similar to coral reefs in that they are highly efficient at conserving and circulating necessary nutrients, which explains their lushness in a nutrient desert.[19]

Grasslands contribute to soil organic matter, stored mainly in their extensive fibrous root mats. Due in part to the climatic conditions of these regions (e.g., cooler temperatures and semi-arid to arid conditions), these soils can accumulate significant quantities of organic matter. This can vary based on rainfall, the length of the winter season, and the frequency of naturally occurring lightning-induced grass-fires. While these fires release carbon dioxide, they improve the quality of the grasslands overall, in turn increasing the amount of carbon retained in the humic material. They also deposit carbon directly into the soil in the form of biochar that does not significantly degrade back to carbon dioxide.[20]

Much organic carbon retained in many agricultural areas worldwide has been severely depleted due to intensive farming practices.[21] Since the 1850s, a large proportion of the world's grasslands have been tilled and converted to croplands, allowing the rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon. Methods that significantly enhance carbon sequestration in soil are called carbon farming. They include for example no-till farming, residue mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation.

Forests

edit
This section is an excerpt from Carbon sequestration § Forestry.[edit]
 
Proportion of carbon stock in forest carbon pools, 2020[22]

Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Therefore, they play an important role in climate change mitigation.[23]: 37  By removing the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, meaning they store large amounts of carbon in the form of biomass, encompassing roots, stems, branches, and leaves. Throughout their lifespan, trees continue to sequester carbon, storing atmospheric CO2 long-term.[24] Sustainable forest management, afforestation, reforestation are therefore important contributions to climate change mitigation.

An important consideration in such efforts is that forests can turn from sinks to carbon sources.[25][26][27] In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts[28] and deforestation. The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.[29]

Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the latter leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation.[30] Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest.[31] Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019.[32] Additionally, the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in the future than keeping existing forests intact.[33] It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation.[34] Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution".[35]

The planting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands helps to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO
2 into biomass.[36][37] For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from biomass burning or rotting when the trees die.[38] To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via biochar, bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, landfill or stored by use in construction.

Deep ocean, tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses

edit
This section is an excerpt from Blue carbon.[edit]
 
Ways one blue carbon habitat can influence the carbon concentration and future carbon sequestration in an adjacent blue carbon habitat[39]

Blue carbon is a concept within climate change mitigation that refers to "biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management".[40]: 2220  Most commonly, it refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrass meadows can play in carbon sequestration.[40]: 2220  These ecosystems can play an important role for climate change mitigation and ecosystem-based adaptation. However, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost, they release carbon back to the atmosphere, thereby adding to greenhouse gas emissions.[40]: 2220 

The methods for blue carbon management fall into the category of "ocean-based biological carbon dioxide removal (CDR) methods".[41]: 764  They are a type of biological carbon fixation.

Scientists are looking for ways to further develop the blue carbon potential of ecosystems.[42] However, the long-term effectiveness of blue carbon as a carbon dioxide removal solution is under debate.[43][42][44]

The term deep blue carbon is also in use and refers to storing carbon in the deep ocean waters.[45]

Enhancing natural carbon sinks

edit
Main article: Carbon sequestration

Purpose in the context of climate change

edit
This section is an excerpt from Climate change mitigation § Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks.[edit]
 
About 58% of CO2 emissions have been absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (2020 Global Carbon Budget).

An important mitigation measure is "preserving and enhancing carbon sinks".[46] This refers to the management of Earth's natural carbon sinks in a way that preserves or increases their capability to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and to store it durably. Scientists call this process also carbon sequestration. In the context of climate change mitigation, the IPCC defines a sink as "Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere".[47]: 2249  Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean.[48]

To enhance the ability of ecosystems to sequester carbon, changes are necessary in agriculture and forestry.[49] Examples are preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.[50]: 266  Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century.[51]: 1068 [52]: 17  There are concerns about over-reliance on these technologies, and their environmental impacts.[52]: 17 [53]: 34  But ecosystem restoration and reduced conversion are among the mitigation tools that can yield the most emissions reductions before 2030.[46]: 43 

Land-based mitigation options are referred to as "AFOLU mitigation options" in the 2022 IPCC report on mitigation. The abbreviation stands for "agriculture, forestry and other land use"[46]: 37  The report described the economic mitigation potential from relevant activities around forests and ecosystems as follows: "the conservation, improved management, and restoration of forests and other ecosystems (coastal wetlands, peatlands, savannas and grasslands)". A high mitigation potential is found for reducing deforestation in tropical regions. The economic potential of these activities has been estimated to be 4.2 to 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2 -eq) per year.[46]: 37 

Carbon sequestration techniques in oceans

edit
Main article: Carbon sequestration § Sequestration techniques in oceans

To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following technologies have been proposed but none have achieved large scale application so far: Seaweed farming, ocean fertilisation, artificial upwelling, basalt storage, mineralization and deep sea sediments, adding bases to neutralize acids. The idea of direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection has been abandoned.[54]

Artificial carbon sinks

edit

Geologic carbon sequestration

edit
Main article: Carbon sequestration § Geologic carbon sequestration

Wooden buildings

edit
See also: Green building and wood
 
Mjøstårnet, one of the tallest timber buildings, at its opening 2019

Broad-base adoption of mass timber and their role in substituting steel and concrete in new mid-rise construction projects over the next few decades has the potential to turn timber buildings into carbon sinks, as they store the carbon dioxide taken up from the air by trees that are harvested and used as mass timber.[11] This could result in storing between 10 million tons of carbon per year in the lowest scenario and close to 700 million tons in the highest scenario. For this to happen, the harvested forests would need to be sustainably managed and wood from demolished timber buildings would need to be reused or preserved on land in various forms.[11]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ "Global Carbon Budget 2021" (PDF). Global Carbon Project. 4 November 2021. p. 57. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2021. The cumulative contributions to the global carbon budget from 1850. The carbon imbalance represents the gap in our current understanding of sources & sinks. ... Source: Friedlingstein et al 2021; Global Carbon Project 2021
  2. ^ a b c d e IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
  3. ^ "Carbon Sources and Sinks". National Geographic Society. 26 March 2020. Archived from the original on 14 December 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  4. ^ "The ocean – the world's greatest ally against climate change". United Nations. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
  5. ^ Binkley, Clark S.; Brand, David; Harkin, Zoe; Bull, Gary; Ravindranath, N. H.; Obersteiner, Michael; Nilsson, Sten; Yamagata, Yoshiki; Krott, Max (1 May 2002). "Carbon sink by the forest sector—options and needs for implementation". Forest Policy and Economics. 4 (1): 65–77. doi:10.1016/S1389-9341(02)00005-9. ISSN 1389-9341.
  6. ^ Batjes, N.H.; Ceschia, E.; Heuvelink, G.B.M.; Demenois, J.; le Maire, G.; Cardinael, R.; Arias-Navarro, C.; von Egmond, F. (October 2024). "Towards a modular, multi-ecosystem monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) framework for soil organic carbon stock change assessment". Carbon Management. 15 (1): 2410812. doi:10.1080/17583004.2024.2410812.
  7. ^ CHAPUIS-LARDY L, WRAGE N, CHOTTE J, BERNOUX M (2007). "Soils, a sink for N2O? A review". Global Change Biology. 13 (1): 1–17. Bibcode:2007GCBio..13....1C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01280.x. S2CID 86551302.
  8. ^ Cobo S, Negri V, Valente A, Reiner D, Hamelin L, Dowell N, Guillén-Gosálbez G (2023). "Sustainable scale-up of negative emissions technologies and practices: where to focus". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (2): 023001. Bibcode:2023ERL....18b3001C. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acacb3. hdl:20.500.11850/596686. S2CID 254915878.
  9. ^ "What is a Carbon Sink?". greenly.earth. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  10. ^ Blakemore, R.J. (2018). "Non-Flat Earth Recalibrated for Terrain and Topsoil". Soil Systems. 2 (4): 64. doi:10.3390/soilsystems2040064.
  11. ^ a b c Churkina, Galina; Organschi, Alan; Reyer, Christopher P. O.; Ruff, Andrew; Vinke, Kira; Liu, Zhu; Reck, Barbara K.; Graedel, T. E.; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (2020). "Buildings as a global carbon sink". Nature Sustainability. 3 (4): 269–276. Bibcode:2020NatSu...3..269C. doi:10.1038/s41893-019-0462-4. ISSN 2398-9629. S2CID 213032074.
  12. ^ "carbon sequestration | Definition, Methods, & Climate Change". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  13. ^ "Carbon Sinks: A Brief Review". Earth.Org - Past | Present | Future. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  14. ^ "carbon sink – European Environment Agency". eea.europa.eu. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  15. ^ Swift, Roger S. (November 2001). "Sequestration of Carbon by soil". Soil Science. 166 (11): 858–71. Bibcode:2001SoilS.166..858S. doi:10.1097/00010694-200111000-00010. S2CID 96820247.
  16. ^ Batjes, N.H. (1996). "Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world". European Journal of Soil Science. 47 (2): 151–163. Bibcode:1996EuJSS..47..151B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1996.tb01386.x. ISSN 1351-0754.
  17. ^ Batjes, N.H. (2016). "Harmonized soil property values for broad-scale modelling (WISE30sec) with estimates of global soil carbon stocks". Geoderma. 269: 61–68. Bibcode:2016Geode.269...61B. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.01.034.
  18. ^ Klaus Lorenza; Rattan Lala; Caroline M. Prestonb; Klaas G.J. Nieropc (15 November 2007). "Strengthening the soil organic carbon pool by increasing contributions from recalcitrant aliphatic bio(macro)molecules". Geoderma. 142 (1–2): 1–10. Bibcode:2007Geode.142....1L. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.07.013.
  19. ^ "Coral Reefs Biome "Underwater Rainforests"". Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  20. ^ Woolf, Dominic; Amonette, James E.; Street-Perrott, F. Alayne; Lehmann, Johannes; Joseph, Stephen (10 August 2010). "Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change". Nature Communications. 1 (5): 56. Bibcode:2010NatCo...1...56W. doi:10.1038/ncomms1053. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 2964457. PMID 20975722.
  21. ^ "Organic Farming Can Cool the World that Chemical Farming Overheated". 17 October 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  22. ^ Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8753en. ISBN 978-92-5-132581-0. S2CID 130116768.
  23. ^ IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
  24. ^ Sedjo, R., & Sohngen, B. (2012). Carbon sequestration in forests and soils. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ., 4(1), 127-144.
  25. ^ Baccini, A.; Walker, W.; Carvalho, L.; Farina, M.; Sulla-Menashe, D.; Houghton, R. A. (October 2017). "Tropical forests are a net carbon source based on aboveground measurements of gain and loss". Science. 358 (6360): 230–234. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..230B. doi:10.1126/science.aam5962. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28971966.
  26. ^ Spawn, Seth A.; Sullivan, Clare C.; Lark, Tyler J.; Gibbs, Holly K. (6 April 2020). "Harmonized global maps of above and belowground biomass carbon density in the year 2010". Scientific Data. 7 (1): 112. Bibcode:2020NatSD...7..112S. doi:10.1038/s41597-020-0444-4. ISSN 2052-4463. PMC 7136222. PMID 32249772.
  27. ^ Carolyn Gramling (28 September 2017). "Tropical forests have flipped from sponges to sources of carbon dioxide; A closer look at the world's trees reveals a loss of density in the tropics". Sciencenews.org. 358 (6360): 230–234. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..230B. doi:10.1126/science.aam5962. PMID 28971966. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
  28. ^ Greenfield, Patrick (14 October 2024). "Trees and land absorbed almost no CO2 last year. Is nature's carbon sink failing?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  29. ^ Harvey, Fiona (4 March 2020). "Tropical forests losing their ability to absorb carbon, study finds". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
  30. ^ "Press corner". European Commission – European Commission. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  31. ^ Walker, Xanthe J.; Baltzer, Jennifer L.; Cumming, Steven G.; Day, Nicola J.; Ebert, Christopher; Goetz, Scott; Johnstone, Jill F.; Potter, Stefano; Rogers, Brendan M.; Schuur, Edward A. G.; Turetsky, Merritt R.; Mack, Michelle C. (August 2019). "Increasing wildfires threaten historic carbon sink of boreal forest soils". Nature. 572 (7770): 520–523. Bibcode:2019Natur.572..520W. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1474-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31435055. S2CID 201124728. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  32. ^ "Climate emissions from tropical forest damage 'underestimated by a factor of six'". The Guardian. 31 October 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  33. ^ "Why Keeping Mature Forests Intact Is Key to the Climate Fight". Yale E360. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  34. ^ "Would a Large-scale Reforestation Effort Help Counter the Global Warming Impacts of Deforestation?". Union of Concerned Scientists. 1 September 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  35. ^ "Planting trees is no substitute for natural forests". phys.org. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  36. ^ McDermott, Matthew (22 August 2008). "Can Aerial Reforestation Help Slow Climate Change? Discovery Project Earth Examines Re-Engineering the Planet's Possibilities". TreeHugger. Archived from the original on 30 March 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
  37. ^ Lefebvre, David; Williams, Adrian G.; Kirk, Guy J. D.; Paul; Burgess, J.; Meersmans, Jeroen; Silman, Miles R.; Román-Dañobeytia, Francisco; Farfan, Jhon; Smith, Pete (7 October 2021). "Assessing the carbon capture potential of a reforestation project". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 19907. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1119907L. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99395-6. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8497602. PMID 34620924.
  38. ^ Gorte, Ross W. (2009). Carbon Sequestration in Forests (PDF) (RL31432 ed.). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  39. ^ Huxham, M.; Whitlock, D.; Githaiga, M.; Dencer-Brown, A. (2018). "Carbon in the Coastal Seascape: How Interactions Between Mangrove Forests, Seagrass Meadows and Tidal Marshes Influence Carbon Storage". Current Forestry Reports. 4 (2): 101–110. Bibcode:2018CForR...4..101H. doi:10.1007/s40725-018-0077-4. S2CID 135243725.   Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Archived 2017-10-16 at the Wayback Machine.
  40. ^ a b c IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J. B. R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J. S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
  41. ^ Canadell, J. G., P. M. S. Monteiro, M. H. Costa, L. Cotrim da Cunha, P. M. Cox, A. V. Eliseev, S. Henson, M. Ishii, S. Jaccard, C. Koven, A. Lohila, P. K. Patra, S. Piao, J. Rogelj, S. Syampungani, S. Zaehle, and K. Zickfeld, 2021: Chapter 5: Global Carbon and other Biogeochemical Cycles and Feedbacks. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 673–816, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.007.
  42. ^ a b Ricart, Aurora M.; Krause-Jensen, Dorte; Hancke, Kasper; Price, Nichole N.; Masqué, Pere; Duarte, Carlos M. (2022). "Sinking seaweed in the deep ocean for carbon neutrality is ahead of science and beyond the ethics". Environmental Research Letters. 17 (8): 081003. Bibcode:2022ERL....17h1003R. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac82ff. hdl:10754/679874. S2CID 250973225.
  43. ^ Hurd, Catriona L.; Law, Cliff S.; Bach, Lennart T.; Britton, Damon; Hovenden, Mark; Paine, Ellie R.; Raven, John A.; Tamsitt, Veronica; Boyd, Philip W. (2022). "Forensic carbon accounting: Assessing the role of seaweeds for carbon sequestration". Journal of Phycology. 58 (3): 347–363. Bibcode:2022JPcgy..58..347H. doi:10.1111/jpy.13249. PMID 35286717. S2CID 247453370.
  44. ^ Boyd, Philip W.; Bach, Lennart T.; Hurd, Catriona L.; Paine, Ellie; Raven, John A.; Tamsitt, Veronica (2022). "Potential negative effects of ocean afforestation on offshore ecosystems". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 6 (6): 675–683. Bibcode:2022NatEE...6..675B. doi:10.1038/s41559-022-01722-1. PMID 35449458. S2CID 248322820.
  45. ^ "What Is Blue Carbon?". CarbonBetter. 4 November 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  46. ^ a b c d IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
  47. ^ IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
  48. ^ "Carbon Sources and Sinks". National Geographic Society. 26 March 2020. Archived from the original on 14 December 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  49. ^ Levin, Kelly (8 August 2019). "How Effective Is Land At Removing Carbon Pollution? The IPCC Weighs In". World Resources Institute.
  50. ^ Hoegh-Guldberg, O., D. Jacob, M. Taylor, M. Bindi, S. Brown, I. Camilloni, A. Diedhiou, R. Djalante, K.L. Ebi, F. Engelbrecht, J.Guiot, Y. Hijioka, S. Mehrotra, A. Payne, S.I. Seneviratne, A. Thomas, R. Warren, and G. Zhou, 2018: Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5°C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T.Maycock, M.Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US, pp. 175-312. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.005.
  51. ^ Bui, Mai; Adjiman, Claire S.; Bardow, André; Anthony, Edward J.; Boston, Andy; Brown, Solomon; Fennell, Paul S.; Fuss, Sabine; Galindo, Amparo; Hackett, Leigh A.; Hallett, Jason P.; Herzog, Howard J.; Jackson, George; Kemper, Jasmin; Krevor, Samuel (2018). "Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward". Energy & Environmental Science. 11 (5): 1062–1176. doi:10.1039/C7EE02342A. hdl:10044/1/55714. ISSN 1754-5692.
  52. ^ a b IPCC, 2018: Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US, pp. 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.001.
  53. ^ IPCC, 2018: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. In Press.
  54. ^ Benson, S.M.; Surles, T. (1 October 2006). "Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: An Overview With Emphasis on Capture and Storage in Deep Geological Formations". Proceedings of the IEEE. 94 (10): 1795–1805. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2006.883718. ISSN 0018-9219. S2CID 27994746. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sink&oldid=1259175332"