The Tamil prasaśti of Virarajendra Chola records a naval invasion of Kadaram (modern Kedah in Malaysia) by the Cholas in 1068. Sources assert that the expedition was undertaken to help a Kadaram prince who had approached Virarajendra Chola for assistance in procuring the throne. The kingdom of Kadaram is believed to be the same as the Srivijaya empire although some scholars disagree.[1]
| Chola invasion of Malaysia | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I | |||||||||
.jpg) Painting from Wat Thai, Penang , Malaysia , illustrating the Chola invasion in Kedah. | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Chola Empire | Kingdom of Kadaram (vassal of Srivijaya) | ||||||||
Sources
editThe most detailed source of information on the campaign is the Tamil stele of Rajendra Chola I.[5] The stele states:
(Who) having despatched many ships in the midst of the rolling sea and having caught Sangrāma-vijayōttunga-varman, the king of Kadāram, together with the elephants in his glorious army, (took) the large heap of treasures, which (that king) had rightfully accumulated; (captured) with noise the (arch called) Vidhyādharatorana at the "war gate" of his extensive city, Śrī Vijaya with the "jewelled wicket-gate" adorned with great splendour and the "gate of large jewels"; Paṇṇai with water in its bathing ghats; the ancient Malaiyūr with the strong mountain for its rampart; Māyuriḍingam, surrounded by the deep sea (as) by a moat; Ilangāśōka (i.e. Lankāśōka) undaunted in fierce battles; Māpappālam having abundant (deep) water as defence; Mēviḷimbangam having fine walls as defence; Vaḷaippandūru having Viḷappandūru (?); Talaittakkōlam praised by great men (versed in) the sciences; Mādamālingam, firm in great and fierce battles; Ilāmuridēśam, whose fierce strength rose in war; Mānakkavāram, in whose extensive flower gardens honey was collecting; and Kadāram, of fierce strength, which was protected by the deep sea[5][6]
The Thiruvalangadu plates, from the fourteenth year of Rajendra Chola I, mentions his conquest of Kadaram but does not go into the details.[5] The first attempt by someone from outside India to identify the places associated with the campaign was made by epigraphist E. Hultzsch, who had published the stele in 1891.[7] Hultzsch identified the principalities mentioned in the inscription with places ruled by the Pandyan Dynasty.[7] In 1903, he rescinded his theory and stated that the stele described Rajendra Chola I's conquest of Bago in Burma.[7] George Coedès' Le Royaume de Sri Vijaya published in 1918 after several years of research, rejected both the theories and provided the first convincing description of Rajendra Chola I's conquest of Southeast Asia.[8]
Background
editThe reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian Nilakanta Sastri suggested that the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.[citation needed] Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom.[9] After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.[9][10]
Invasion
editMalaiyur in malaysia, with "its strong mountain", has been identified with Malayu in today Jambi province in Batanghari river valley, where a strong principality flourished at that time. Other suggestion is the southern part of the Malay peninsula[11] gets conquered by the cholas. Mayirudingam is believed to be the same as Ji-lo-ting listed by the Chinese writer Chau Ju-Kua among the dependencies of Sri Vijaya and is identified with the city of Chaiya in the centre of the Malay peninsula. [citation needed] The land of Ilangasoka (Langkasuka) mentioned in the inscriptions has been located on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula and is believed to be the same as the province of Ling-ya-sseu-kia mentioned in Chau Ju-Kua's list.Talaittakkolam is believed to be the same as Takkola mentioned by Ptolemy as a trading emporion on the Golden Chersonese, and identified with Trang or the modern-day city of Takuapa in the Isthmus of Kra.[12][13][14] and at last Kadaram, All these cities weree conquered and subjugated by the Chola empire.[15]
Aftermath
edit
Cholas continued their expedition deeper into the Sri Vijayan territories. Srivijaya used to dominate maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca and Sunda Strait.[citation needed] This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by Chola Empire, a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025.[10] The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the Khmer Empire and Kahuripan.[16] Continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Indianized Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital Angkor hosts majestic monuments—such as Angkor Wat and Bayon. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.[a] {{cn span |text=Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Tamil influence can be found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity rather than commerce. Chola's grip on the northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula receded in the 12th century — the Tamil poem Kalingatupparani of ca. 1120 CE mentioned Kulottungga's destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared from Indian sources. [citation needed]
Notes
editReferences
edit- ^ Sastri 2000, p. 271-272.
- ^ Pearson, Michael (December 2010). "Book Review: Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia". International Journal of Maritime History. 22 (2): 352–354. doi:10.1177/084387141002200220. ISSN 0843-8714. S2CID 127026949.
- ^ "Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia | ISEAS Publishing". bookshop.iseas.edu.sg. Retrieved 2023-10-15.
- ^ Spencer, George W. (May 1976). "The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon". The Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (3): 405–419. doi:10.2307/2053272. ISSN 1752-0401. JSTOR 2053272. S2CID 154741845.
- ^ a b c Sastri 2000, p. 211.
- ^ Majumdar, R. C. (1937). Ancient Indian colonies in the Far East. Vol. 2: Suvarnadvipa. Dacca: Ashok Kumar Majumdar. pp. 167–190.
- ^ a b c Sastri 2000, p. 212.
- ^ Sastri 2000, p. 213.
- ^ a b Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318–336, Brill Publishers
- ^ a b R. C. Majumdar (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338–342, Artibus Asiae Publishers
- ^ Sastri 2000, p. 215.
- ^ Sastri 2000, p. 216.
- ^ W. Linehan (1951). "The Identifications of Some of Ptolemy's Place Names in the Golden Khersonese" (PDF). Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. xxiv (III): 86–98. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-25.
- ^ Arokiaswamy, Celine W.M. (2000). Tamil Influences in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Manila s.n. p. 46.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Sastri 2000, pp. 217–218.
- ^ Mukherjee, Rila (2011). Pelagic Passageways: The Northern Bay of Bengal Before Colonialism. Primus Books. p. 76. ISBN 978-93-80607-20-7. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935, p. 709.
Bibliography
edit- Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (2000) [1935]. The Cōlas. Madras: University of Madras.