This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. (June 2017) |
Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 4 May 1979 to 28 November 1990, during which time she led a Conservative majority government. She was the first woman to hold that office. During her premiership, Thatcher moved to liberalise the British economy through deregulation, privatisation, and the promotion of entrepreneurialism.
Second Thatcher ministry | |
|---|---|
_(St_Edwards_Crown).svg){kind=small} Cabinet of the United Kingdom | |
| 1983–1987 | |
.jpg) Thatcher in 1983 | |
| Date formed | 10 June 1983 |
| Date dissolved | 11 June 1987 |
| People and organisations | |
| Monarch | Elizabeth II |
| Prime Minister | Margaret Thatcher |
| Prime Minister's history | Premiership of Margaret Thatcher |
| Deputy Prime Minister | [note 1] |
| Total no. of members | 219 appointments |
| Member party | Conservative Party |
| Status in legislature | Majority 397 / 650 (61%) |
| Opposition cabinet | |
| Opposition party | Labour Party |
| Opposition leader |
|
| History | |
| Election | 1983 general election |
| Outgoing election | 1987 general election |
| Legislature terms | 49th UK Parliament |
| Budgets | |
| Predecessor | First Thatcher ministry |
| Successor | Third Thatcher ministry |
This article details the second Thatcher ministry which she led at the invitation of Queen Elizabeth II from 1983 to 1987.
Formation
editThe Conservative government was re-elected in June 1983 with a majority of 144 seats, with Labour in opposition having a mere 209 seats after its worst postwar electoral performance, seeing off a close challenge from the SDP–Liberal Alliance who came close to them on votes though not with seats.
With inflation firmly under control and union reforms contributing towards the lowest level of strikes since the early 1950s, the Conservatives were now faced with the challenge of reducing unemployment from a record high of 3,200,000.
March 1984 saw the beginning of a miners' strike which would last for 12 months and divide the country as Mrs Thatcher announced extensive pit closures which would ultimately cost thousands of miners their jobs as well, while the remaining pits were set to be privatised in the proposed sell-off of the National Coal Board. Privatisation of utilities and heavy industry was becoming a key symbol of Thatcherism, with the likes of British Telecom also transferring from public to private ownership.
Michael Foot had stepped down as Labour leader following the 1983 general election. The man elected by Labour with the task of getting them back into government was Neil Kinnock. He proved himself as a fierce rival to Thatcher, and more than once during the 1983–87 parliament, the opinion polls showed Labour (and very occasionally the Alliance) in the lead, although a huge swing was required at a general election if the Conservative government was to be ousted.
The challenge from the SDP–Liberal Alliance was becoming weaker, despite their brief lead of the opinion polls during 1985.
However, economic growth following recession had been re-established by the beginning of this parliament and by 1987 the economy was well on the road to recovery. However, although unemployment which had peaked at nearly 3,300,000 during 1984 remained above 3,000,000 by the turn of 1987, with the opinion polls all showing a Tory lead, it was anticipated that Thatcher would call the next general election earlier than the deadline of June 1988.
Fate
editA general election was called for 11 June 1987, and the Conservatives triumphed for the third election in succession. Labour, on the other hand, achieved a better election result than it had the previous time (and also managed to reduce the Conservative majority), with more than 30% of the vote, while the SDP–Liberal Alliance floundered and was soon disbanded as the Social Democratic Party and Liberal Party merged to form the Social and Liberal Democrats (who soon became the Liberal Democrats).
Cabinet
editJune 1983 to June 1987
edit- Margaret Thatcher – Prime Minister
- The Viscount Whitelaw – Leader of the House of Lords and Lord President of the Council
- The Lord Hailsham of St Marylebone – Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain
- John Biffen – Leader of the House of Commons and Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal
- Nigel Lawson – Chancellor of the Exchequer
- Peter Rees – Chief Secretary to the Treasury
- Sir Geoffrey Howe – Foreign Secretary
- Leon Brittan – Home Secretary
- Michael Jopling – Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
- Michael Heseltine – Secretary of State for Defence
- Sir Keith Joseph – Secretary of State for Education
- Norman Tebbit – Secretary of State for Employment
- Peter Walker – Secretary of State for Energy
- Patrick Jenkin – Secretary of State for the Environment
- Norman Fowler – Secretary of State for Health
- The Lord Cockfield – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
- Jim Prior – Secretary of State for Northern Ireland
- George Younger – Secretary of State for Scotland
- Cecil Parkinson – Secretary of State for Trade and Industry and President of the Board of Trade
- Tom King – Secretary of State for Transport
- Nicholas Edwards – Secretary of State for Wales
- John Wakeham – Chief Whip of the House of Commons and Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury
Changes
edit- October 1983 –
- Tom King succeeded Norman Tebbit as Secretary of State for Employment.
- Norman Tebbit succeeded Cecil Parkinson as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry.
- Nicholas Ridley succeeded Tom King as Secretary of State for Transport.
- September 1984 –
- Earl of Gowrie succeeded Lord Cockfield as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
- Douglas Hurd succeeded Jim Prior as Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.
- Lord Young of Graffham enters the Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio.
- September 1985 –
- Lord Young of Graffham succeeded Tom King as Secretary of State for Employment.
- Kenneth Baker succeeded Patrick Jenkin as Secretary of State for the Environment.
- Norman Tebbit succeeded Earl of Gowrie as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
- Tom King succeeded Douglas Hurd as Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.
- Kenneth Clarke enters the Cabinet as Paymaster-General.
- Leon Brittan succeeded Norman Tebbit as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry.
- John MacGregor succeeded Peter Rees as Chief Secretary to the Treasury.
- Douglas Hurd succeeded Leon Brittan as Home Secretary.
- early January 1986 – Malcolm Rifkind succeeded George Younger as Secretary of State for Scotland. Younger succeeded Michael Heseltine as Secretary of State for Defence.
- late January 1986 – Paul Channon succeeded Leon Brittan as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry.
- May 1986 –
- Nicholas Ridley succeeded Kenneth Baker as Secretary of State for the Environment. John Moore succeeded Ridley as Secretary of State for Transport.
- Kenneth Baker succeeded Keith Joseph as Secretary of State for Education and Science.
List of ministers
editMembers of the Cabinet are in bold face.
| Office | Name | Dates | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Margaret Thatcher | June 1983 | ||
| The Viscount Whitelaw | June 1983 – June 1987 | ||
| Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain | The Lord Hailsham of St Marylebone | June 1983 | |
| The Viscount Whitelaw | 11 June 1983 | also Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party | |
| Minister of State for the Privy Council Office | The Earl of Gowrie | 11 June 1983 – 11 September 1984 | |
| Richard Luce | 2 September 1985 – June 1987 | ||
| John Biffen | 11 June 1983 | ||
| Chancellor of the Exchequer | Nigel Lawson | 11 June 1983 | |
| Chief Secretary to the Treasury | Peter Rees | 11 June 1983 | |
| John MacGregor | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Minister of State for Treasury | Barney Hayhoe | June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | |
| Ian Gow | 2 September 1985 – 19 November 1985 | ||
| Hon. Peter Brooke | 19 November 1985 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury | John Wakeham | 11 June 1983 | |
| Financial Secretary to the Treasury | Hon. Nicholas Ridley | 13 June 1983 | |
| John Moore | 18 October 1983 | ||
| Norman Lamont | 21 May 1986 | ||
| Economic Secretary to the Treasury | John Moore | 13 June 1983 | |
| Ian Stewart | 19 October 1983 | ||
| Lords Commissioners of the Treasury | Alastair Goodlad | June 1983 – 10 September 1984 | |
| Donald Thompson | June 1983 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| David Hunt | June 1983 – 10 September 1984 | ||
| Ian Lang | 11 June 1983 – 1 February 1986 | ||
| Tristan Garel-Jones | 11 June 1983 – 16 October 1986 | ||
| John Major | 3 October 1984 – 1 November 1985 | ||
| Hon. Archie Hamilton | 3 October 1984 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| Hon. Tim Sainsbury | 7 October 1985 – 23 June 1987 | ||
| Michael Neubert | 10 February 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Peter Lloyd | 16 October 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Hon. Mark Lennox-Boyd | 16 October 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Tony Durant | 16 October 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Assistant Whips | Hon. Archie Hamilton | June 1983 – October 1984 | |
| John Major | January 1983 – October 1984 | ||
| Douglas Hogg | February 1983 – October 1984 | ||
| Michael Neubert | June 1983 – February 1986 | ||
| Hon. Tim Sainsbury | June 1983 – October 1985 | ||
| Tony Durant | October 1984 – October 1986 | ||
| Peter Lloyd | October 1984 – October 1986 | ||
| Hon. Mark Lennox-Boyd | October 1984 – October 1986 | ||
| Francis Maude | October 1985 – June 1987 | ||
| Gerald Malone | February 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| David Lightbown | October 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Michael Portillo | October 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Richard Ryder | October 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Foreign Secretary | Sir Geoffrey Howe | 11 June 1983 | |
| Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs | Timothy Raison | June 1983 – 10 September 1986 | also Minister of Overseas Development |
| Richard Luce | 11 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | ||
| Malcolm Rifkind | 13 June 1983 – 11 January 1986 | ||
| The Baroness Young | 13 June 1983 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Tim Renton | 2 September 1985 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Lynda Chalker | 11 January 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Chris Patten | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs | Ray Whitney | 13 June 1983 | |
| Tim Renton | 11 September 1984 | ||
| Timothy Eggar | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Minister for Overseas Development | Timothy Raison | June 1983 | |
| Chris Patten | 10 September 1986 | also Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs | |
| Home Secretary | Leon Brittan | 11 June 1983 | |
| Hon. Douglas Hurd | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Minister of State for Home Affairs | David Waddington | June 1983 – 13 June 1987 | |
| Hon. Douglas Hurd | June 1983 – September 1984 | ||
| The Lord Elton | 11 September 1984 – 25 March 1985 | ||
| Giles Shaw | 11 September 1984 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| David Mellor | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| The Earl of Caithness | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State for Home Affairs | The Lord Elton | June 1983 – 11 September 1984 | |
| David Mellor | June 1983 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| The Lord Glenarthur | 27 March 1984 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| Hon. Douglas Hogg | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food | Michael Jopling | 11 June 1983 | |
| Minister of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food | John MacGregor | 13 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | |
| The Lord Belstead | 13 June 1983 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| John Gummer | 2 September 1985 – June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food | Peggy Fenner | June 1983 – 10 September 1986 | |
| Donald Thompson | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Minister for the Arts | The Earl of Gowrie | 13 June 1983 | |
| Richard Luce | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Secretary of State for Defence | Michael Heseltine | June 1983 | |
| Hon. George Younger | 9 January 1986 | ||
| Minister of State for the Armed Forces | John Stanley | 13 June 1983 | |
| Minister of State for Defence Procurement | Geoffrey Pattie | 13 June 1983 | |
| Hon. Adam Butler | 11 September 1984 | ||
| Norman Lamont | 2 September 1985 | ||
| The Lord Trefgarne | 21 May 1986 | ||
| Minister of State for Defence Support | The Lord Trefgarne | 2 September 1985 – 21 May 1986 | |
| Under-Secretary of State for the Armed Forces | The Lord Trefgarne | 13 June 1983 – 1 September 1985 | |
| Roger Freeman | 21 May 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State for Defence Procurement | Ian Stewart | June 1983 – 18 October 1983 | |
| John Lee | 18 October 1983 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| Hon. Archie Hamilton | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Secretary of State for Education | Sir Keith Joseph, Bt | June 1983 | |
| Kenneth Baker | 21 May 1986 | ||
| Minister of State, Education and Science | Chris Patten | 5 September 1985 – 10 September 1986 | |
| Angela Rumbold | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State, Education and Science | Hon. Peter Brooke | 13 June 1983 – 19 November 1985 | |
| Bob Dunn | 13 June 1983 – June 1987 | ||
| George Walden | 19 November 1985 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Secretary of State for Employment | Norman Tebbit | June 1983 | |
| Tom King | 16 October 1983 | ||
| The Lord Young of Graffham | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Minister of State, Employment | Hon. Peter Morrison | 13 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | |
| John Gummer | 18 October 1983 – 11 September 1984 | ||
| Kenneth Clarke | 2 September 1985 – 13 June 1987 | Also Paymaster General | |
| Under-Secretary of State, Employment | John Gummer | June 1983 – 18 October 1983 | |
| Alan Clark | 13 June 1983 – 24 January 1986 | ||
| Peter Bottomley | 11 September 1984 – 23 January 1986 | ||
| David Trippier | 2 September 1985 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Ian Lang | 31 January 1986 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| John Lee | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Secretary of State for Energy | Peter Walker | 11 June 1983 | |
| Minister of State, Energy | Alick Buchanan-Smith | 13 June 1983 | |
| Under-Secretary of State, Energy | The Earl of Avon | June 1983 – 11 September 1984 | |
| Giles Shaw | 13 June 1983 – 11 September 1984 | ||
| David Hunt | 11 September 1984 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Alastair Goodlad | 11 September 1984 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Secretary of State for the Environment | Patrick Jenkin | 11 June 1983 | |
| Kenneth Baker | 23 September 1985 | ||
| Hon. Nicholas Ridley | 21 May 1986 | ||
| Minister of State for Local Government | The Lord Bellwin | June 1983 | |
| Kenneth Baker | 11 September 1984 | ||
| Hon. William Waldegrave | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Rhodes Boyson | 10 September 1986 | ||
| Minister of State for Housing | Ian Gow | 13 June 1983 | |
| John Patten | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Minister of State, Environment | The Lord Elton | 27 March 1985 – 10 September 1986 | |
| Hon. William Waldegrave | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State for Sport | Neil Macfarlane | June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | |
| Richard Tracey | 7 September 1985 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State, Environment | Sir George Young, Bt | June 1981 – 10 September 1986 | |
| Hon. William Waldegrave | 13 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | ||
| The Earl of Avon | 11 September 1984 – 27 March 1985 | ||
| Angela Rumbold | 2 September 1985 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| The Lord Skelmersdale | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Christopher Chope | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Secretary of State for Social Services | Norman Fowler | June 1983 | |
| Minister of State, Health | Kenneth Clarke | June 1983 | |
| Barney Hayhoe | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Tony Newton | 10 September 1986 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State, Health and Social Security | Tony Newton | June 1983 – 11 September 1984 | |
| John Patten | 14 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | ||
| The Lord Glenarthur | 14 June 1983 – 26 March 1985 | ||
| Ray Whitney | 11 September 1984 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| The Baroness Trumpington | 30 March 1985 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| John Major | 2 September 1985 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| Nicholas Lyell | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Edwina Currie | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Minister of State, Social Security | Rhodes Boyson | 12 June 1983 – 11 September 1984 | |
| Tony Newton | 11 September 1984 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| John Major | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Minister of State, Industry and Information Technology | Kenneth Baker | June 1983 | under Office of Trade and Industry from 12 June 1983 |
| Geoffrey Pattie | 11 September 1984 | Office abolished 13 June 1987 | |
| Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster | The Lord Cockfield | 11 June 1983 | |
| The Earl of Gowrie | 11 September 1984 | ||
| Norman Tebbit | 3 September 1985 | ||
| Secretary of State for Northern Ireland | James Prior | June 1983 | |
| Hon. Douglas Hurd | 11 September 1984 | ||
| Tom King | 3 September 1985 | ||
| Minister of State, Northern Ireland | Hon. Adam Butler | June 1983 – 11 September 1984 | |
| The Earl of Gowrie | June 1983 – September 1983 | ||
| The Earl of Mansfield | 13 June 1983 – 12 April 1984 | ||
| Rhodes Boyson | 11 September 1984 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| Nicholas Scott | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State, Northern Ireland | Nicholas Scott | June 1983 – 11 September 1986 | |
| Chris Patten | 14 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | ||
| The Lord Lyell | 12 April 1984 – June 1987 | ||
| Richard Needham | 3 September 1985 – June 1987 | ||
| Peter Viggers | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Brian Mawhinney | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Paymaster General | Vacant | 11 June 1983 | |
| John Gummer | 11 September 1984 | ||
| Kenneth Clarke | 2 September 1985 | also Minister of State, Employment | |
| Minister without Portfolio | The Lord Young of Graffham | 11 September 1984 – 3 September 1985 | |
| Secretary of State for Scotland | Hon. George Younger | June 1983 | |
| Malcolm Rifkind | 11 January 1986 | ||
| Minister of State for Scotland | The Lord Gray of Contin | 13 June 1983 – 11 September 1986 | |
| The Lord Glenarthur | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State for Scotland | Allan Stewart | June 1983 – 10 September 1986 | |
| John MacKay | June 1983 – 14 June 1987 | ||
| Michael Ancram | 13 June 1983 – 14 June 1987 | ||
| Ian Lang | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Minister of State for Trade | Paul Channon | 13 June 1983 | under Office of Trade and Industry |
| Alan Clark | 24 January 1986 | ||
| Secretary of State for Trade and Industry | Cecil Parkinson | 12 June 1983 | |
| Norman Tebbit | 16 October 1983 | ||
| Leon Brittan | 2 September 1985 | ||
| Paul Channon | 24 January 1986 | ||
| Minister of State for Trade and Industry | Norman Lamont | 13 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | |
| Hon. Peter Morrison | 2 September 1985 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| Giles Shaw | 10 September 1986 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry | John Butcher | 14 June 1983 – June 1987 | |
| Alexander Fletcher | 14 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | ||
| David Trippier | 14 June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | ||
| The Lord Lucas of Chilworth | 11 September 1984 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Michael Howard | 2 September 1985 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| Secretary of State for Transport | Tom King | 11 June 1983 | |
| Hon. Nicholas Ridley | 16 October 1983 | ||
| John Moore | 21 May 1986 | ||
| Minister of State, Transport | Lynda Chalker | 18 October 1983 – 10 January 1986 | |
| David Mitchell | 23 January 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Under-Secretary of State for Transport | Lynda Chalker | June 1983 – 18 October 1983 | |
| David Mitchell | 11 June 1983 – 23 January 1986 | ||
| Michael Spicer | 11 September 1984 – 13 June 1987 | ||
| The Earl of Caithness | 2 September 1985 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| Peter Bottomley | 23 January 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| The Lord Brabazon of Tara | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| Secretary of State for Wales | Nicholas Edwards | June 1983 | |
| Minister of State for Wales | John Stradling Thomas | June 1983 – 2 September 1985 | |
| Under-Secretary of State for Wales | Wyn Roberts | June 1983 – 13 June 1987 | |
| Mark Robinson | 3 October 1985 – 15 June 1987 | ||
| Attorney General | Michael Havers | June 1983 | |
| Solicitor General | Sir Patrick Mayhew | 13 June 1983 | |
| Lord Advocate | The Lord Mackay of Clashfern | June 1983 | |
| The Lord Cameron of Lochbroom | 16 May 1984 | ||
| Solicitor General for Scotland | Peter Fraser | June 1983 | |
| Treasurer of the Household | John Cope | 11 June 1983 | |
| Comptroller of the Household | Carol Mather | June 1983 | |
| Hon. Robert Boscawen | 16 October 1986 | ||
| Vice-Chamberlain of the Household | Hon. Robert Boscawen | June 1983 | |
| Tristan Garel-Jones | 16 October 1986 | ||
| Captain of the Gentlemen-at-Arms | The Lord Denham | June 1983 | |
| Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard | The Earl of Swinton | June 1983 | |
| The Viscount Davidson | 10 September 1986 | ||
| Lords-in-Waiting | The Viscount Long | June 1983 – 2 May 1997 | |
| The Lord Lyell | June 1983 – 12 April 1984 | ||
| The Lord Skelmersdale | June 1983 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| The Lord Lucas of Chilworth | June 1983 – 9 September 1984 | ||
| The Baroness Trumpington | 11 June 1983 – 25 March 1985 | ||
| The Earl of Caithness | 8 May 1984 – 2 September 1985 | ||
| The Lord Brabazon of Tara | 19 September 1984 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| The Baroness Cox | 3 April 1985 – 2 August 1985 | ||
| The Viscount Davidson | 17 September 1985 – 10 September 1986 | ||
| The Baroness Hooper | 17 September 1985 – 14 June 1987 | ||
| The Lord Hesketh | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| The Lord Beaverbrook | 10 September 1986 – June 1987 | ||
| The Earl of Dundee | 3 October 1986 – June 1987 |
Notes
edit- ^ William Whitelaw did not officially hold the title of Deputy Prime Minister (Hennessy 2001, p. 405). He only served as Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party.
References
edit- Hennessy, Peter (2001), "A Tigress Surrounded by Hamsters: Margaret Thatcher, 1979–90", The Prime Minister: The Office and Its Holders since 1945, Penguin Group, ISBN 978-0-14-028393-8
- British Cabinet and Government Membership, archived from the original on 16 January 2009, retrieved 20 April 2012
- British Government 1979–2005, archived from the original on 7 February 2012, retrieved 20 November 2007