Wikipedia

Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis

(Redirected from Dihoplus kirchbergensis)

Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis, also known as Merck's rhinoceros (or the less commonly, the forest rhinoceros) is an extinct species of rhinoceros belonging to the genus Stephanorhinus from the Early-Middle to Late Pleistocene of Eurasia. Its range spanned from Western Europe to Eastern Asia. Among the last members of the genus, it co-existed alongside Stephanorhinus hemitoechus (the narrow-nosed or steppe rhinoceros) in the western part of its range.

Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis
Temporal range: Middle Pleistocene–Late Pleistocene
↓
Mostly complete skull from Germany
Diagram of skull from Russia
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Rhinocerotidae
Genus: †Stephanorhinus
Species:
†S. kirchbergensis
Binomial name
†Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis
(Jäger, 1839)
Synonyms
List
  • Coelodonta merckii
    (Kaup, 1841)
  • Dicerorhinus merckii
    (Kaup, 1841)
  • Dc. m. var. brachycephala
    Schroeder, 1903
  • Dc. kirchbergensis
    (Jäger, 1839)
  • Dc. k. var. brachycephala
    Schroeder, 1903
  • Dihoplus kirchbergensis
    (Jäger, 1839)
  • R. incisivus
    Merck, 1784
  • R. kirchbergense
    Jäger, 1839
  • R. leptorhinus
    Cuvier, 1836
  • R. megarhinus
    de Christol, 1834
  • R. merckii (or mercki, merki)
    Kaup, 1841
  • R. m. var. brachycephala
    Schroeder, 1903
  • R. (Tichorhinus) merckii
    (Kaup, 1841)
  • Stephanorhinus yunchuchenensis (Chow, 1963)
  • Dicerorhinus nipponicus

Description

edit
 
Comparison of the head angle of Merck's rhinoceros (top) with that of Stephanorhinus hemitoechus and the woolly rhinoceros (middle and bottom, respectively)

Merck's rhinoceros was a large rhinoceros, with a body mass in the range of 1,500–3,000 kilograms (3,300–6,600 lb),[1] with a particularly large specimen from Poland reaching an estimated height at the withers of 1.82 metres (6.0 ft).[2] It is one of the largest species of Stephanorhinus, exceeding S. hundsheimensis and S. hemitoechus in size.[3] The bones of the skeleton are robust and massive. The skull of Merck's rhinoceros is elongated, with the septum nasalis ossified only towards its anterior (front) end. The mandibular symphysis is relatively long and the mandible has a horizontal high, thick branch.[4]

Dental anatomy

edit

The enamel of the teeth is very thick, and often bright coloured and smooth, with very thin or absent coronal cement. The buccal (cheek-facing) sides of the teeth often have sub-vertical bluish lines. Tooth dimensions are highly variable in comparison to other Stephanorhinus species. The upper teeth, especially the molars, are much higher towards the buccal side than to the lingual (towards the tongue) side. The ectolophs of the first and second upper molars have shallower folds, especially the fold between the paracone and mesostyle, than those of S. hemitoechus, resulting in a less pronounced undulation. In comparison to other species of Stephanorhinus, the premolars of S. kirchbergensis are mesially (towards the front of the tooth) broad and relatively lingually short. The upper premolar ectoloph folds are shallow, and have narrow anterior valleys. The ectoloph curves strongly mesially and often distally (towards the hind portion of the tooth) towards the inside of the tooth. In both upper molars and premolars, the metalophs and the protolophs are distinctly bulbous. The lower premolars and molars are similar and hard to distinguish.[4]

Taxonomy

edit

The species was named by Georg Friedrich von Jäger in 1839 for Kirchberg an der Jagst in Baden-Württemberg, Germany where the type specimens of the species had been found.[5] It is often known in English (and equivalents in other languages) as Merck's rhinoceros after Carl Heinrich Merck, who gave the initial name to the species in 1784 as Rhinoceros incisivus, that is now considered a nomen oblitum, and who after a widely used junior synonym of the species, Rhinoceros merckii (historically several alternate spellings) was named by Johann Jakob Kaup in 1841.[6]

Merck's rhinoceros belongs to the genus Stephanorhinus, which first appeared in Europe during the Late Pliocene, around 3.5 million years ago, and is known from fossils across Eurasia. Mitochondrial and nuclear genomes obtained from Merck's rhinoceros suggest that its closest living relative is the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), though it shares a closer common ancestry with the extinct woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis), from which it suggested to have diverged around 5.5 million years ago.[7]

Relationships among Late Pleistocene and modern rhinoceros genera, based on nuclear DNA, after Liu et al., 2021:[7]

Elasmotheriinae

†Elasmotherium sibiricum

Rhinocerotinae

Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)

Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)

† Woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis)

† Merck's rhinoceros (Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis)

Bayesian morphological phylogeny, after (Pandolfi, 2023) Note: This excludes living African rhinoceros species.[8]

Rhinocerotina
Dicerorhinus

Dihoplus schleiermacheri

"Dihoplus" pikermiensis

Coelodonta
Pliorhinus

Pliorhinus megarhinus

Pliorhinus miguelcrusafonti

Stephanorhinus

Stephanorhinus jeanvireti

Stephanorhinus etruscus

Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis

Stephanorhinus hemitoechus (Narrow-nosed or steppe rhinoceros)

Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Merck's or forest rhinoceros)

Distribution and chronology

edit

Distribution

edit
 
Approximate time averaged range of Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (red) and Stephanorhinus hemitoechus (blue), with overlapping range in purple.

Its range spans from Europe to East Asia, but appears to be absent from the Iberian Peninsula.[9][10] It was predominantly present in Europe during interglacial periods where it formed part of the Palaeoloxodon antiquus assemblage, where it occurred alongside the straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antquus) and the narrow-nosed rhinoceros (Stephanorhinus hemitoechus).[11] In Europe its range extended northwards to Denmark[12] and southern Britain[9] (though it appears to have been absent from Britain during the Last Interglacial).[13] Its range extended into the Arctic Circle in Eastern Siberia, with a 70–48,000 year old skull known from arctic Yakutia in the Chondon River valley[14] and a late Middle Pleistocene aged lower jaw from the Yana River valley.[15] Teeth are known from caves in Primorsky Krai, suggested to date between 50,000 and 25,000 years ago based on dates of other bones found in the deposit, which are the easternmost known records,[16] along with records from the Middle Pleistocene of western and central Japan (which were previously attributed to the species Dicerorhinus nipponicus).[17][18] Remains are known from the Caucasus such as from Azokh Cave in Azerbaijan.[19] Previous claimed records from the Levant and North Africa are now thought to erroneous, and attributable to the narrow-nosed rhinoceros or other rhinoceros species.[9] A tooth of S. cf. kirchbergensis of an unknown age is known from the Lut Desert in northeastern Iran.[20] It is fairly common throughout the Pleistocene in North China,[21] but is a rarer component of South Chinese assemblages,[22] being known from around 30 localities in the region.[23] Its range was strongly controlled by glacial cycles, with the species experiencing repeated cycles of expansion and contraction as the ice sheets advanced, this accounts for the relative rarity of its remains in comparison to the woolly rhinoceros.[9]

Chronology

edit

The earliest definitive records of the species are from Zhoukoudian Locality 13, near Beijing in northern China at around the Early-Middle Pleistocene transition approximately 800,000 years ago.[23] Stephanorhinus yunchuchenensis from Shanxi, China, likely represents a junior synonym of S. kirchbergensis, its precise age is uncertain, but it has been suggested to date to the late Early Pleistocene.[24] S. kirchbergensis appears in Europe during the early Middle Pleistocene between 700,000 and 600,000 years ago, where early on it coexisted with another Stephanorhinus species, S. hundsheimensis.[13]

During the Last Glacial Period, the species range contracted. The timing of its extinction in Europe is uncertain, thought it postdates the end of the Last Interglacial around 115,000 years ago.[25] Radiocarbon dated remains from the Altai date to around 40,000 years ago.[26] The youngest reliable records in China are from the Rhino Cave in Hubei, which is early Late Pleistocene in age.[22] Though less definitive remains are known from near Harbin in Heilongjiang, which are thought to be 20 kya in age.[23] Records from Migong Cave just south of the Yangtze River in the Three Gorges area in northeastern Chongqing are suggested to date to MIS 2 (29,000-14,000 years ago).[27]

Ecology

edit
 
Restoration of two Merck's rhinoceros in open wooded landscape with oak trees during the Eemian interglacial in Europe

Although the species has been referred to as the "forest rhinoceros", the species showed broad environmental tolerances, inhabiting across its range various environments[20] from open habitats like grassland as well as woodlands and forest.[13] Compared to the narrow-nosed rhinoceros, S. hemitoechus, the Merck's rhinoceros did nonetheless show a preference for denser, forested habitat.[28]

Merck's rhinoceros has been interpreted as a browser or a mixed feeder, consuming both browse such as branches and leaves of trees and shrubs, as well as low-lying vegetation. Its diet appears to have varied according to local conditions, though on average its diet included more browse than S. hemitoechus, which in Europe it often co-existed alongside.[29][30][13] Analysis of plant material embedded within teeth from the Neumark-Nord locality in Germany found remains of Populus (poplar or aspen) Quercus (oak), Crataegus (hawthorn), Pyracantha, Urtica (nettles) and Nymphaea (water lilies) as well as indeterminate remains of Betulaceae, Rosaceae, and Poaceae (grass).[1] Preserved plant remains found with the teeth on the arctic Chondon skull included twigs of Salix (willow), Betula (birch) and abundant Larix (larch) alongside fragments of Ericaceae (heather); sedges were notably absent.[14] A specimen from Eemian aged deposits in Gorzów Wielkopolski in Poland had twigs of Corylus (hazel), Carpinus (hornbeam), and Viscum (mistletoe), alongside fruit scales of birch, with hazel and birch dominating amongst the pollen.[29] The pollen from a specimen found at Spinadesco in Italy was dominated (~50%) by trees, particularly Alnus (alder) and Fagus (beech), with Hippophae rhamnoides (sea buckthorn), dominating amongst the shrubs, with around 30% of the total contribution being from a variety of herbaceous plants.[31]

Human exploitation

edit

Evidence has been found at a number of sites for the exploitation and likely hunting of Merck's rhinoceros by archaic humans.

Cut marks are known on bones of S. kirchbergensis from the Guado San Nicola site in central Italy, which dates to the late Middle Pleistocene, around 400–345,000 years ago.[32] Remains of S. kirchbergensis with cut marks have also been reported from the Medzhibozh locality in western Ukraine, dating to MIS 11, around 425–375,000 years ago.[33] At the collapsed cave of Payre in southeast France, dating to the late Middle Pleistocene, numerous remains of rhinoceroses, primarily S. kirchbergensis and to a lesser exent S. hemitoechus have been found, which are suggested to have been accumulated by Neanderthals, and display marks indicative of butchery. Mortality profiles suggest that young and old individuals were preferentially targeted. The abundance of teeth found at the site (though other skull material is largely absent) suggests that the Neanderthals may have been using them as tools.[34] At the Grays Thurrock site in southern Britain, dating to MIS 9 around 300,000 years ago, both S. kirchbergensis and S. hemitoechus are suggested to have been butchered.[35] At the Taubach travertine site in Thuringia, Germany, which dates to the Eemian (approximately 130,000-115,000 years ago) abundant remains of Merck's rhinoceros with cut marks are known. The vast majority of remains were of young subadults, alongside a much smaller number of adults. It has been suggested that the rhinoceroses were killed and butchered on site by Neanderthals.[36]

edit
  •  
    Partial skull in Stuttgart
  •  
    300,000 year old dentary fragment from the United Kingdom in the NHM, London
  •  
    Remains of Merck's rhinoceros from Germany
  •  
    View of the top of the snout of a S. kirchbergensis skull, showing the rugose texture of the horn attachment area

References

edit
  1. ^ a b Jan van der Made und René Grube: The rhinoceroses from Neumark-Nord and their nutrition. In: Harald Meller (Hrsg.): Elefantenreich – Eine Fossilwelt in Europa. Halle/Saale 2010, S. 382–394
  2. ^ Sobczyk, Artur; Borówka, Ryszard K.; Badura, Janusz; Stachowicz-Rybka, Renata; Tomkowiak, Julita; Hrynowiecka, Anna; Sławińska, Joanna; Tomczak, Michał; Pitura, Mateusz; Lamentowicz, Mariusz; Kołaczek, Piotr (May 2020). "Geology, stratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental evolution of the Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis -bearing Quaternary palaeolake(s) of Gorzów Wielkopolski (NW Poland, Central Europe)". Journal of Quaternary Science. 35 (4): 539–558. Bibcode:2020JQS....35..539S. doi:10.1002/jqs.3198. hdl:10261/237944. ISSN 0267-8179. S2CID 216264117.
  3. ^ Saarinen, J; Eronen, J; Fortelius, M; Seppä, H; Lister, A (2016). "Patterns of diet and body mass of large ungulates from the Pleistocene of Western Europe, and their relation to vegetation". Palaeontologia Electronica. doi:10.26879/443. ISSN 1094-8074.
  4. ^ a b Selected records of Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger, 1839 (Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae) in Italy Emmanuel M.E. BILLIA & Carmelo PETRONIO Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana, 48 (1), 2009, xx-xx. Modena
  5. ^ Georg Friedrich Jäger: Über die fossilen Säugetiere welche in Württemberg in verschiedenen Formationen aufgefunden worden sind, nebst geognostischen Bemerkungen über diese Formationen. C. Erhard Verlag, Stuttgart, 1835–39
  6. ^ Johann Jakob Kaup: Akten der Urwelt oder Osteologie der urweltlichen Säugethiere und Amphibien. Darmstadt, Verlag des Herausgebers, 1841
  7. ^ a b Liu, Shanlin; Westbury, Michael V.; Dussex, Nicolas; Mitchell, Kieren J.; Sinding, Mikkel-Holger S.; Heintzman, Peter D.; Duchêne, David A.; Kapp, Joshua D.; von Seth, Johanna; Heiniger, Holly; Sánchez-Barreiro, Fátima (16 September 2021). "Ancient and modern genomes unravel the evolutionary history of the rhinoceros family". Cell. 184 (19): 4874–4885.e16. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.032. hdl:10230/48693. PMID 34433011. S2CID 237273079.
  8. ^ Pandolfi, Luca (2023-01-19). "Reassessing the phylogeny of Quaternary Eurasian Rhinocerotidae". Journal of Quaternary Science. 38 (3): 291–294. Bibcode:2023JQS....38..291P. doi:10.1002/jqs.3496. hdl:11563/163194. ISSN 0267-8179.
  9. ^ a b c d Billa, E.M.E. 2011a. Occurrences of Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger, 1839) (Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae) in Eurasia - An account. Acta Palaeontologica Romaniae 7: 17-40
  10. ^ Billia, E.M.E., Zervanová, J., 2015. New Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis(Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae) records in Eurasia. Addenda to a previous work. Gortania.Geologia, Paleontologia, Paletnologia36, 55–68.
  11. ^ Pushkina, Diana (July 2007). "The Pleistocene easternmost distribution in Eurasia of the species associated with the Eemian Palaeoloxodon antiquus assemblage". Mammal Review. 37 (3): 224–245. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2007.00109.x. ISSN 0305-1838.
  12. ^ Billia, E.M.E. and Zervanovȧ, J., New Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger, 1839) (Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae) records in Eurasia. Addenda to a previous work, Geol., Paleontol., Paletnol., 2015, vol. 36, pp. 55–68.
  13. ^ a b c d van Asperen, Eline N.; Kahlke, Ralf-Dietrich (January 2015). "Dietary variation and overlap in Central and Northwest European Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis and S. hemitoechus (Rhinocerotidae, Mammalia) influenced by habitat diversity" (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 107: 47–61. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.10.001. S2CID 83801422.
  14. ^ a b Kirillova, Irina V.; Chernova, Olga F.; van der Made, Jan; Kukarskih, Vladimir V.; Shapiro, Beth; van der Plicht, Johannes; Shidlovskiy, Fedor K.; Heintzman, Peter D.; van Kolfschoten, Thijs; Zanina, Oksana G. (November 2017). "Discovery of the skull of Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger, 1839) above the Arctic Circle". Quaternary Research. 88 (3): 537–550. Bibcode:2017QuRes..88..537K. doi:10.1017/qua.2017.53. ISSN 0033-5894. S2CID 45478220.
  15. ^ Shpansky, A. V.; Boeskorov, G. G. (July 2018). "Northernmost Record of the Merck's Rhinoceros Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger) and Taxonomic Status of Coelodonta jacuticus Russanov (Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae)". Paleontological Journal. 52 (4): 445–462. Bibcode:2018PalJ...52..445S. doi:10.1134/S003103011804010X. ISSN 0031-0301. S2CID 91447285.
  16. ^ Kosintsev, P. A.; Zykov, S. V.; Tiunov, M. P.; Shpansky, A. V.; Gasilin, V. V.; Gimranov, D. O.; Devjashin, M. M. (March 2020). "The First Find of Merck's Rhinoceros (Mammalia, Perissodactyla, Rhinocerotidae, Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis Jäger, 1839) Remains in the Russian Far East". Doklady Biological Sciences. 491 (1): 47–49. doi:10.1134/S0012496620010032. ISSN 0012-4966. PMID 32483707. S2CID 219156923.
  17. ^ Handa, Naoto; Pandolfi, Luca (July 2016). "Reassessment of the Middle Pleistocene Japanese Rhinoceroses (Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae) and Paleobiogeographic Implications". Paleontological Research. 20 (3): 247–260. doi:10.2517/2015PR034. ISSN 1342-8144.
  18. ^ Handa, Naoto; Takahashi, Keiichi (October 2024). "A review of the taxonomy, biostratigraphy and paleobiogeography of Plio-Pleistocene rhinoceroses in Japan". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: 106357. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2024.106357.
  19. ^ Van der Made, Jan; Torres, Trinidad; Ortiz, Jose Eugenio; Moreno-Pérez, Laura; Fernández-Jalvo, Yolanda (2016), Fernández-Jalvo, Yolanda; King, Tania; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Andrews, Peter (eds.), "The New Material of Large Mammals from Azokh and Comments on the Older Collections", Azokh Cave and the Transcaucasian Corridor, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 117–162, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24924-7_6, ISBN 978-3-319-24922-3, retrieved 2024-08-23
  20. ^ a b Hashemi, N; Ashouri, A; Aliabadian, M; M. Gharaie, M; Sánchez Marco, A; Louys, J (2016). "First report of Quaternary mammals from the Qalehjough area, Lut Desert, Eastern Iran". Palaeontologia Electronica. doi:10.26879/539. ISSN 1094-8074.
  21. ^ Antoine, Pierre-Olivier (March 2012). "Pleistocene and Holocene rhinocerotids (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from the Indochinese Peninsula". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 11 (2–3): 159–168. Bibcode:2012CRPal..11..159A. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2011.03.002.
  22. ^ a b Tong, HaoWen; Wu, XianZhu (April 2010). "Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Rhinocerotidae, Mammalia) from the Rhino Cave in Shennongjia, Hubei". Chinese Science Bulletin. 55 (12): 1157–1168. Bibcode:2010ChSBu..55.1157T. doi:10.1007/s11434-010-0050-5. ISSN 1001-6538. S2CID 67828905.
  23. ^ a b c Tong, Hao-wen (November 2012). "Evolution of the non-Coelodonta dicerorhine lineage in China". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 11 (8): 555–562. Bibcode:2012CRPal..11..555T. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2012.06.002.
  24. ^ Pandolfi, Luca (December 2022). "A critical overview on Early Pleistocene Eurasian Stephanorhinus (Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae): Implications for taxonomy and paleobiogeography". Quaternary International. 674–675: 109–120. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2022.11.008.
  25. ^ Stefaniak, Krzysztof; Kotowski, Adam; Badura, Janusz; Sobczyk, Artur; Borówka, Ryszard K.; Stachowicz-Rybka, Renata; Moskal-del Hoyo, Magdalena; Hrynowiecka, Anna; Tomkowiak, Julita; Sławińska, Joanna; Przybylski, Bogusław; Ciszek, Dariusz; Alexandrowicz, Witold Paweł; Skoczylas-Śniaz, Sylwia; Ratajczak-Skrzatek, Urszula (2023-05-09). "A skeleton of peat-trapped forest rhinoceros Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger, 1839) from Gorzów Wielkopolski, Northwestern Poland: a record of life and death of the Eemian large mammals". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen. 308 (1): 45–77. doi:10.1127/njgpa/2023/1129. ISSN 0077-7749.
  26. ^ Kirillova, I. V.; Vershinina, A. O.; Zazovskaya, E. P.; Zanina, O. G.; Cutler, S.; Kosintsev, P. A.; Lapteva, E. G.; Chernova, O. F.; Shapiro, B. (December 2021). "On Time and Environment of Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis Jäger 1839 (Mammalia, Rhinoceratidae) in Altai and Northeastern Russia". Biology Bulletin. 48 (9): 1674–1687. Bibcode:2021BioBu..48.1674K. doi:10.1134/S1062359021090077. ISSN 1062-3590.
  27. ^ Pang, Libo; Chen, Shaokun; Huang, Wanbo; Wu, Yan; Wei, Guangbiao (April 2017). "Paleoenvironmental and chronological analysis of the mammalian fauna from Migong Cave in the Three Gorges Area, China". Quaternary International. 434: 25–31. Bibcode:2017QuInt.434...25P. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.11.039.
  28. ^ Pushkina, Diana; Bocherens, Hervé; Ziegler, Reinhard (7 August 2014). "Unexpected palaeoecological features of the Middle and Late Pleistocene large herbivores in southwestern Germany revealed by stable isotopic abundances in tooth enamel". Quaternary International. 339–340: 164–178. Bibcode:2014QuInt.339..164P. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.033. Retrieved 30 September 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  29. ^ a b Stefaniak, Krzysztof; Stachowicz-Rybka, Renata; Borówka, Ryszard K.; Hrynowiecka, Anna; Sobczyk, Artur; Moskal-del Hoyo, Magdalena; Kotowski, Adam; Nowakowski, Dariusz; Krajcarz, Maciej T.; Billia, Emmanuel M.E.; Persico, Davide (September 2020). "Browsers, grazers or mix-feeders? Study of the diet of extinct Pleistocene Eurasian forest rhinoceros Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger, 1839) and woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis (Blumenbach, 1799)". Quaternary International. 605–606: 192–212. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.08.039. hdl:10261/255910. S2CID 224984977.
  30. ^ Pandolfi, Luca; Bartolini-Lucenti, Saverio; Cirilli, Omar; Bukhsianidze, Maia; Lordkipanidze, David; Rook, Lorenzo (July 2021). "Paleoecology, biochronology, and paleobiogeography of Eurasian Rhinocerotidae during the Early Pleistocene: The contribution of the fossil material from Dmanisi (Georgia, Southern Caucasus)". Journal of Human Evolution. 156: 103013. Bibcode:2021JHumE.15603013P. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103013. PMID 34030060.
  31. ^ Burkanova, Elena M.; Billia, Emmanuel M.E.; Persico, Davide (July 2020). "Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger, 1839) (Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae) from the Po valley (Lombardia, Northern Italy): possible diet/nutrition and living conditions". Quaternary International. 554: 164–169. Bibcode:2020QuInt.554..164B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.07.031. ISSN 1040-6182. S2CID 225542965.
  32. ^ Berruti, Gabriele Luigi Francesco; Arzarello, Marta; Ceresa, Allison; Muttillo, Brunella; Peretto, Carlo (December 2020). "Use-Wear Analysis of the Lithic Industry of the Lower Palaeolithic Site of Guado San Nicola (Isernia, Central Italy)". Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology. 3 (4): 794–815. Bibcode:2020JPalA...3..794B. doi:10.1007/s41982-020-00056-3. ISSN 2520-8217.
  33. ^ Stepanchuk, V.N.; Moigne, A.-M. (July 2016). "MIS 11-locality of Medzhibozh, Ukraine: Archaeological and paleozoological evidence". Quaternary International. 409: 241–254. Bibcode:2016QuInt.409..241S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.09.050.
  34. ^ Daujeard, Camille; Daschek, Eva J.; Patou‑Mathis, Marylène; Moncel, Marie‑Hélène (2018-09-01). "Les néandertaliens de Payre (Ardèche, France) ont-ils chassé le rhinocéros ?". Quaternaire (in French). 29 (3): 217–231. doi:10.4000/quaternaire.10196. ISSN 1142-2904.
  35. ^ Parfitt, Simon A. (2022-09-12). "A Middle Pleistocene Butchery Site at Great Yeldham, Essex, UK: Identifying Butchery Strategies and Implications for Mammalian Faunal History". Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology. 5 (1): 11. Bibcode:2022JPalA...5...11P. doi:10.1007/s41982-022-00122-y. ISSN 2520-8217.
  36. ^ Bratlund, B. 1999. Taubach revisited. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 46: 61-174.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephanorhinus_kirchbergensis&oldid=1256161212"