Waterfowl hunting

Waterfowl hunting is the practice of hunting aquatic birds such as ducks, geese and other waterfowls or shorebirds for sport and meat. Waterfowl are hunted in crop fields where they feed, or in areas with bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands, sloughs, or coasts.^[1]

History

Prehistoric waterfowl hunting

Wild waterfowl have been hunted for meat, down, and feathers worldwide since prehistoric times. Ducks, geese, and swans appear in European cave paintings from the last ice age. The mural in the ancient Egyptian tomb of Khnumhotep II shows a man in a hunting blind capturing swimming ducks in a trap.^[2] Muscovy ducks were depicted in the art of the Moche culture of ancient Peru.^[3]

Rise of modern waterfowl hunting

Duck hunting outside Lanišče, by Franz Anton von Steinberg, 1759.

Modern waterfowl hunting began in the 17th century with the matchlock rifle. Later flintlock blunderbuss and percussion cap guns were used. Shotguns were loaded with black powder and lead shot through the muzzle until the late 19th century. The transition from flintlock to percussion lock firearms and from muzzle to breechloading guns was largely driven by innovations made by English gun makers such as Joseph Manton, at which time wildfowling was extremely popular in England both as a pastime and as a means of earning a living.^[4] Damascus steel barrels could not take the high pressure of smokeless powder. Duck hunters from Illinois, invented the shotgun choke in 1886. This allowed for longer range shooting with the shotgun and kept the pattern of shot tighter or looser according to which type of choke is being used. Market hunters could shoot at longer ranges up to forty five yards with a full choke barrel and harvest more waterfowl. Shotguns became bigger and more powerful as steel barrels were being used, so the range was extended to sixty yards.^[5]

Duck shooting outside Toledo, 1908.

Early European settlers in America hunted waterfowl with great zeal, as the supply of waterfowl seemed unlimited in the coastal Atlantic regions. During the fall migrations, the skies were filled with waterfowl. Places such as Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and Barnegat Bay were hunted extensively. As more immigrants came to America in the late 18th and 19th centuries, the need for more food became greater. Market hunting started to take form, to supply the local population living along the Atlantic coast with fresh ducks and geese. Men would go into wooden boats and go out into the bays hunting, sometimes with large shotguns. They would bring back a wooden barrel or two of ducks each day. Live ducks were used as decoys as well as bait such as corn or other grain to attract waterfowl.^[6]

The rise of modern waterfowl hunting is tied to the history of the shotgun, which shoots a pattern of round pellets making it easier to hit a moving target. In the 19th century, the seemingly limitless flocks of ducks and geese in the Atlantic and Mississippi Flyways of North America were the basis for a thriving commercial waterfowl hunting industry. With the advent of punt guns – massive, boat-mounted shotguns that could fire a half-pound of lead shot at a time – hunters could kill dozens of birds with a single blast.^[6]

Species of waterfowl hunted

Many species of ducks and geese share the same habitat and have overlapping hunting seasons. In North America a variety of ducks and geese are hunted, the most common being mallards, Canada goose, snow goose, canvasback, redhead, northern pintail, gadwall, ruddy duck, coots, common merganser and red-breasted merganser.^[7] Also hunted are black duck, wood duck, blue-winged teal, green-winged teal, bufflehead, northern shoveler, wigeon, and goldeneye. Sea ducks include long-tailed duck, eider, and scoter.^[8]

Modern hunting techniques

Duck hunting using decoys in the Chippewa National Forest, 1938.

The waterfowl hunting season is generally in the autumn and winter. Hunting seasons are set by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service in the United States. In the autumn, the ducks and geese have finished raising their young and are migrating to warmer areas to feed. A hunting blind is used to conceal the hunter while duck decoys are used to attract birds. Using a good spread of decoys and calling, an experienced waterfowl hunter can successfully bag ducks or geese if waterfowl are flying that day.^[9] Boats can be used as a hunting blind, known as sneakbox. Most popular are flat-bottomed boats (usually johnboats) for increased stability. Kayaks or canoes are also used. Pursuing diving ducks in lakes, bays or sounds requires larger and more stable boats, as small boats have been known to capsize. Sinkboxes that conceal the hunter under the water surface are illegal.^[1] Retriever dogs are used to retrieve the shot ducks. Most often hunters use a Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever or Chesapeake Bay Retriever to retrieve waterfowl. The retriever helps to retrieve birds, and hunts down crippled ducks that survived the shooting.^[10]

Shotguns and ammunition

Since the 16th century, lead shot has been used in waterfowl hunting. In the late 1960s, it was determined that hunting with lead shot, along with the use of lead sinkers in angling, has been identified as a major cause of lead poisoning in waterfowl, which often feed off the bottom of lakes and wetlands where lead shot collects.^[11]^[12] In the United States, Canada, and Europe, all shot used for waterfowl must now be lead free. Within recent years, several companies have created heavier than lead, non-toxic pellets out of tungsten, bismuth, or other elements with a density greater than lead. These shotgun cartridges have more consistent patterns and greater range. The 12-gauge shotgun is the most commonly used, bigger shotguns or punt guns are illegal. Hunters use pellet sizes 4, 3, and 2 for ducks, and 2, BB, BBB and T shot for geese. Buckshot is illegal.^[13]

When hunting with shotguns, there is always a risk of injuring ducks that survive, so called crippling losses. As ducks often fly in flocks, there is a potential for multiple ducks to be hit when hunters shoot into the flock to target an individual. The duck struck by the central cluster of the shot typically dies and falls to the ground. However, ducks on the periphery of the shot may still be hit by some pellets, which they survive but result in lifelong suffering. Shooting at too far a distance also increases the risk of causing injury due to the increased spread of shot pellets.^[14]

Regulations and sportsmanship

Illegally netted ducks near Lake Ontario in 1915.

European hunters in the Middle Ages had a deep sense of justice for their prey and saw hunting as a challenge, where the animals deserved a fair chance. Hunters used fair methods to minimize unnecessary suffering for the prey. This code of honor required hunters to actively pursue and kill all injured animals to prevent their suffering. Targeting a sitting duck was considered dishonest.^[15]

To hunt waterfowl in Canada, one must first obtain a valid Canada Migratory Game Bird Hunting Permit, as well as additional licenses at the provincial level.^[16] In Canada and United States are waterfowl hunters also required to complete hunter safety courses before they can obtain a license.^[17] In the United States, hunters must also purchase a Federal Duck Stamp. It is illegal to shoot ducks from a motor vehicle or a moving boat. Laying baits such as corn, use of live ducks as decoys.^[18] In the Chesapeake Bay in the 1930s one of the biggest threats to waterfowl was local poachers using flat boats, with black powder swivel guns that killed entire flocks with one gunshot.^[19] Today, in most areas, use of shotguns larger than a 10-gauge are prohibited. Shotguns that can hold more than three cartridges must be modified to reduce their magazine size.^[20]

A shot mallard in distress gets help.

The mallard had shot projectiles in her hip and severe lung injury.

It is also considered good sportsmanship to make every possible attempt to retrieve dead or injured waterfowl the hunter has shot (in the Australian state of Victoria it is required by law). Birds are shot within range to prevent cripples. Shooting before birds are within range is also considered poor sportsmanship, as this often merely injures the birds.^[21] The losses resulting from hunters not retrieving their kills, referred to as crippling losses, likely range from 20% to 40% of all waterfowl shot in Canada and the United States. The probable fate for mutilated ducks is a prolonged, agonizing death, marked by relentless suffering and distress.^[22]^[23]

According to Australian studies, duck hunting with shotguns causes a significant proportion of crippling losses with shotguns. An X-ray study of ducks caught using nets in Victoria found that between 6% and 19% of ducks live with embedded pellets from shots in their bodies.^[24] A survey conducted in Victoria on hunting four species of native ducks revealed a significant number of injured birds. Some of these birds survive, while others suffer before eventually dying. Approximately 26% of the shot ducks are either wounded or mutilated. Of these, 12% will be wounded and survive, whereas between 14% and 33% will be mutilated. The likely outcome for mutilated birds is a slow, painful death.^[25] Remarkably, this animal cruelty has been mostly neglected by government officials.^[26]

Flyways and hunting grounds

Flyways over the United States.

Birds migrate between breeding and wintering grounds using flyways. In North America, the flyways used by migratory waterfowl are divided into four broad geographical paths. Each flyway is characterized by a different composition of species and habitat. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service established the flyways to help with the management of migratory birds. They studied all migratory birds and established the Mississippi Flyway, Atlantic Flyway, Mountain Flyway, and Pacific Flyway.^[27] In the Mississippi Flyway wildfowl hunting generally occurs on lakes, marshes, swamps, or rivers where ducks and geese land during their migration. Cornfields and rice paddies are also common hunting grounds, since geese and ducks often feed on the grain that remains in the field after harvest.^[28] The Atlantic Flyway is a migration route used by waterfowl flying from northern Quebec to Florida in the autumn and back in the springtime.^[29] The habitats of waterfowl are marsh and wetlands, which are shrinking at alarming rates due to the drought and farmers draining wetland areas to plant crops. Wetland conservation and restoration is critical for the continuance of waterfowl hunting.^[30]^[31]

References

^ ^a ^b Airhart, Tom; Kent, Eddie; Raymer, Kent (2017). The ultimate guide to waterfowl hunting: tips, tactics, and techniques for ducks and geese. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5107-1674-2.
^ David, Arlette (2014). "Hoopoes and Acacias: Decoding an Ancient Egyptian Funerary Scene". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 73 (2): 235–252. doi:10.1086/677251. S2CID 164075553.
^ Baldassarre, Guy A.; Bolen, Eric G.; Saunders, D. Andrew (1994). Waterfowl Ecology and Management. New York: Wiley. pp. 3–6. ISBN 0-471-59770-8.
^ The diary of Colonel Peter Hawker, (Volume I) 1802-1853
^ Dizard, Jan E.; Stange, Mary Zeiss (2022). Hunting: a cultural history. The MIT Press Essential Knowledge Series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54329-3.
^ ^a ^b Michener, James A. (1978). Chesapeake. New York, N.Y: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-50079-9.
^ Earley, Chris (2020). Waterfowl of Eastern North America. Buffalo, New York ; Richmond Hill, Ontario: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-0-2281-0247-2. OCLC 1117772207.
^ Le Master, Richard (1986). Waterfowl identification: the LeMaster method. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-2982-6.
^ Mackey, William J. (1987). American bird decoys. New York: Dutton. ISBN 978-0-525-24500-1.
^ Smith, Steve, ed. (2002). Encyclopedia of North American sporting dogs. Minocqua, Wis: Willow Creek Press. ISBN 978-1-57223-501-4.
^ Sanderson, Glen C.; Bellrose, Frank C. (1986). "A Review of the Problem of Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl". Special Publication. Champaign, Illinois. Archived from the original on April 22, 1999.
^ Scheuhammer, A. M.; Norris, S. L. (1996). "The ecotoxicology of lead shot and lead fishing weights". Ecotoxicology. 5 (5): 279–295. Bibcode:1996Ecotx...5..279S. doi:10.1007/BF00119051. PMID 24193869. S2CID 40092400.
^ "Shotgun | Hunting, Home Defense & Self-Protection | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-08-11. Retrieved 2024-08-31.
^ Russell, Geoff (1994). "Shotgun Wounding Characteristics". Maple Tech: Maple in Mathematics and the Sciences. December: 17–23.
^ "Hunting | History, Methods, & Management | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-08-07. Retrieved 2024-08-30.
^ "Migratory Game Bird Hunting Permit". September 2011.
^ "Hunter Education Requirements in the United States and Canada — Texas Parks & Wildlife Department".
^ State of California. "Selected 2006 Waterfowl Hunting Regulations."
^ Dacy, George H. (1933). "Poaching Made Big Business by Ruthless Gangs of Killers". Popular Science. 122 (4): 30–31.
^ TPWD:2006 2006-2007 Texas Hunting Season Dates, Grouped by Animal
^ Posewitz, Jim (1994). Beyond fair chase: the ethic and tradition of hunting. United Conservation Alliance. Helena, Mont: Falcon. ISBN 978-1-56044-302-5.
^ Perry, Matthew C.; Geissler, Paul H. (1980). "Incidence of Embedded Shot in Canvasbacks". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 44 (4): 888–894. doi:10.2307/3808317. ISSN 0022-541X. JSTOR 3808317.
^ O'Kelley, Brian L.; Bolen, Eric G. (1985). "Hunting Pressure on Black-Bellied Whistling-Ducks as Indicated by Embedded Shot". Wildlife Society Bulletin (1973-2006). 13 (4): 515–517. ISSN 0091-7648. JSTOR 3782680.
^ Norman, Fi (1976). "The Incidence of Lead Shotgun Pellets in Waterfowl (Anatidae and Rallidae) Examined in South-Eastern Australia Between 1957 and 1973". Wildlife Research. 3 (1): 61. doi:10.1071/WR9760061. ISSN 1035-3712.
^ Norman, Fi; Powell, Dgm (1981). "Rates of Recovery of Bands, Harvest Patterns and Estimates for Black Duck, Chestnut Teal, Grey Teal and Mountain Duck Shot during Victorian Open Seasons, 1953-1977". Wildlife Research. 8 (3): 659. doi:10.1071/WR9810659. ISSN 1035-3712.
^ Hampton, Jordan O.; Hyndman, Timothy H. (2019). "Underaddressed animal-welfare issues in conservation". Conservation Biology. 33 (4): 803–811. Bibcode:2019ConBi..33..803H. doi:10.1111/cobi.13267. hdl:11343/285334. ISSN 0888-8892.
^ "North American Migration Flyways". www.birdnature.com. 2021-05-11. Retrieved 2024-08-30.
^ Tekiela, Stan (2018). Bird migration: the incredible journey of North American birds. Cambridge, Minnesota: Adventure Publications. ISBN 978-1-59193-814-9. OCLC 1014353260.
^ Kathryn (2022-05-16). "Avian Superhighways: The Four Flyways of North America". American Bird Conservancy. Retrieved 2024-08-30.
^ Xu, Ting; Weng, Baisha; Yan, Denghua; Wang, Kun; Li, Xiangnan; Bi, Wuxia; Li, Meng; Cheng, Xiangjun; Liu, Yinxue (2019). "Wetlands of International Importance: Status, Threats, and Future Protection". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (10): 1818. doi:10.3390/ijerph16101818. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC 6571829. PMID 31121932.
^ Keaton, Michael; Ducks Unlimited; Max McGraw Wildlife Foundation; National Audubon Society; Wetlands America Trust, eds. (2022). Wings over water: the vital magic of North America's prairie wetlands. Seattle: FlashPoint Books. ISBN 978-1-954854-55-0. OCLC 1311088464.