Insects are among the most diverse groups of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species and representing more than half of all known living organisms.[1][2] The number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million,[1][3] found in nearly all environments, although only a small number of species occur in the oceans. This large extant means that the dietary habits of taxa include a large variety of behaviors.
Insect mouthparts
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Legend: a - antennae
c - compound eye
lb -labium
lr - labrum
md - mandibles
mx - maxillae.
The insect mouthparts consist of the maxilla, labium, and in some species the mandibles.[4]: 16 [5] The labrum is a simple fused sclerite, often called the upper lip, and moves longitudinally, which is hinged to the clypeus. The mandibles (jaws) are a highly sclerotized pair of structures that move at right angles to the body; used for biting, chewing and severing food. The maxillae are paired structures that can also move at right angles to the body and possess segmented palps. The labium (lower lip) is the fused structure that moves longitudinally and possesses a pair of segmented palps.[6]
The mouthparts, along with the rest of the head, can be articulated in at least three different positions: prognathous, opisthognathous and hypognathous. In species with prognathous articulation, the head is positioned vertically aligned with the body, such as species of Formicidae; while in a hypognathous type, the head is aligned horizontally adjacent to the body. In an opisthognathous head, it was positioned diagonally, such as species of Blattodea and some Coleopterans.[7] The mouthparts vary greatly among insects of different orders but there are two main functional groups: mandibulate and haustellate. Haustellate mouthparts are those used for sucking liquids and can be further classified, by the presence of stylets, which include: piercing-sucking, sponging, and siphoning. The stylets are needle-like projections used to penetrate plant and animal tissue. The stylets and the feeding tube form the modified mandibles, maxilla, and hypopharynx.[6]
- Mandibulate: These forms of mouthparts are among the most common in insects, which are used for biting and grinding solid foods.
- Piercing-sucking: These forms of mouthparts have stylets, and are used to penetrate solid tissue and then suck up liquid food.
- Sponging: These forms of mouthparts are used to sponge and suck liquids and lack stylets (e.g. most Diptera).
- Siphoning: These forms of mouthparts lack stylets and are used to suck liquids, which are commonly found among species of Lepidoptera.
Mouthparts that are mandibular are found in species of Odonata, Blattodea, adult Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, and Lepidoptera. However most adult Lepidoptera have siphoning mouthparts, while the larvae (commonly called caterpillars) are the ones with the mandibles.
Measurement
editDrosophila melanogaster has a long history of use as a model organism for genetic studies.[8] However, as of 2014[update] the quantitative analysis of feeding behavior remains "challenging" and it is "often ignored or poorly characterized".[9] Among many methods, the most commonly applied are capillary feeder (CAFE), radioactive tracer labeling in food, dye tracer labeling in food and counting of proboscis extension (PE) events.[9]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b Chapman, A. D. (2006). Numbers of living species in Australia and the World. Canberra: Australian Biological Resources Study. pp. 60pp. ISBN 978-0-642-56850-2. Archived from the original on 2009-06-09. Retrieved 2012-09-11.
- ^ Wilson, E.O. "Threats to Global Diversity". Archived from the original on 2015-02-20. Retrieved 2009-05-17.
- ^ Vojtech Novotny; Yves Basset; Scott E. Miller; George D. Weiblen; Birgitta Bremer; Lukas Cizek; Pavel Drozd (2002). "Low host specificity of herbivorous insects in a tropical forest". Nature. 416 (6883): 841–844. Bibcode:2002Natur.416..841N. doi:10.1038/416841a. PMID 11976681. S2CID 74583.
- ^ Resh, Vincent H.; Ring T. Carde (July 1, 2009). Encyclopedia of Insects (2 ed.). U. S. A.: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-374144-8.
- ^ "Insect antennae". The Amateur Entomologists' Society. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
- ^ a b "Insect Morphology". University of Minnesota (Department of Entomology). Archived from the original on 2011-03-03. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
- ^ Kirejtshuk, A.G. (November 2002). "Head". Beetles (Coleoptera) and coleopterologist. zin.ru. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
- ^ Beckingham, K. M.; Armstrong, J. D.; Texada, M. J.; Munjaal, R; Baker, D. A. (2005). "Drosophila melanogaster--the model organism of choice for the complex biology of multi-cellular organisms". Gravitational and Space Biology Bulletin. 18 (2): 17–29. PMID 16038090.
- ^ a b Deshpande, Sonali A.; Carvalho, Gil B.; Amador, Ariadne; et al. (May 2014). "Quantifying Drosophila foot intake: comparative analysis of current methodology" (paper). Nat. Methods. 11 (5): 535–49. doi:10.1038/NMETH.2899. PMC 4008671. PMID 24681694.