The environment of Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands scattered over both sides of the equator.[1][2] Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity after Brazil.[3]
Issues
editIndonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[4] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[4] Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.[5] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.[6]
Indonesia has a below average but slightly improving performance in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 107 out of 180 countries in 2016. This is also below average in the Asia Pacific region, behind Thailand but slightly ahead of China. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental areas where Indonesia performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are water resource management (128), environmental effects of fisheries (127) and forest management (109), followed closely by sanitation. Waste water treatment plans are expected to improve conditions a bit in the future. Indonesia performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in the area of climate and energy (41), mostly due to the excellent access to electricity, less so for CO2 emission levels from power production. Health impacts of environmental issues (78) and biodiversity and habitat (83) also ranks above average.[7][8]
Climate Change
editIndonesia is at serious risk from the projected effects of climate change. If emissions go unreduced, it is predicted that it will see an average temperature rise of around 1°C by the middle of the century,[9] 0.3°C per decade.[10] This amounts to almost double the frequency of extremely hot days (with temperatures above 35 °C (95 °F)) per year by 2030, a figure which is predicted to rise to nearly one in three days by the end of the century.[9] Rising temperatures risk increasing the frequency and severity of draught and food shortages, as it will have (and already has already had) a serious impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons upon which the Indonesian agricultural system is based.[10] It will also encourage diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria, and increases in wild-fires, which threaten the huge areas of rainforest in the country.[10]
Climate change is having and will have further serious impact in the form of rising sea levels. As Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago state, at current rates, rising sea levels will result in 42 million Indonesian households over 2000 islands being at risk of submersion by the middle of this century.[11] Over 60% of Indonesia’s population live in low-lying coastal areas, including Jakarta, which is particularly at risk, as 40% of the city is below sea-level and is rapidly subsiding, putting a huge number of people at risk of displacement.[10][12][13]
All of this is likely to affect poorer communities the most. Over 50% of the population of Indonesia live on less than US$2 per day, and the poor will bear the brunt of the disastrous effects of climate change, including death, illness and displacement, “as they are typically the most vulnerable to the impacts of drought, floods, and landslides and pursue livelihoods that are highly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors (i.e fisheries and forestry)”[14]
Deforestation
edit
Deforestation in Indonesia involves the long-term loss of forests and foliage across much of the country; it has had massive environmental and social impacts. Indonesia is home to some of the most biologically diverse forests in the world and ranks third in number of species behind Brazil and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[15]
As late as 1900, Indonesia was still a densely forested country: forests represented 84 percent of the total land area. Deforestation intensified in the 1970s[15] and has accelerated further since then. The estimated forest cover of 170 million hectares around 1900 decreased to less than 100 million hectares by the end of the 20th century.[16] In 2008, it was estimated that tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in a decade.[17] Of the total logging in Indonesia, up to 80% is reported to be performed illegally.[18]
Large areas of forest in Indonesia have been cleared by large multinational pulp companies, such as Asia Pulp and Paper,[19] and replaced by plantations. Forests are often burned by farmers[20] and plantation owners. Another major source of deforestation is the logging industry, driven by demand from China and Japan.[21] Agricultural development and transmigration programs moved large populations into rainforest areas, further increasing deforestation rates. The widespread deforestation (and other environmental destruction) in Indonesia is often described by academics as an ecocide.[22][23][24][25][26]
Logging and the burning of forests to clear land for cultivation has made Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, behind China and the United States.[27] Forest fires often destroy high capacity carbon sinks, including old-growth rainforest and peatlands. In May 2011, Indonesia declared a moratorium on new logging contracts to help combat this.[28] This appeared to be ineffective in the short-term, as the rate of deforestation continued to increase. By 2012 Indonesia had surpassed the rate of deforestation in Brazil,[29] and become the fastest forest clearing nation in the world.[30]Environmental policy and law
editTreaties and international agreements
editIndonesia is a signatory to a number of treaties and international agreements:
- Party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
- Signed, and ratified - Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
- Signed, but not ratified - Marine Life Conservations
Domestic environmental policy
editThis section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2016) |
In 2020 the rate of deforestation in Indonesia was the slowest since 1990. It was 75% lower than in 2019. This is because the government stopped issuing new licences to cut forests, including for palm oil plantations. The falling price of palm oil facilitated making it. Very wet weather reduced wildfires what also contributed to the achievement.[31]
See also
edit
References
edit- ^ "Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonesia". National Geographic Indonesia (in Indonesian). 8 February 2012. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
- ^ "The Naming Procedures of Indonesia's Islands", Tenth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, New York, 31 July – 9 August 2012, United Nations Economic and Social Council
- ^ Brown, Lester R. (1997). State of the World 1997: A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society (14th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 7. ISBN 0-393-04008-9.
- ^ a b Jason R. Miller (30 January 1997). "Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population". TED Case Studies. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 14 August 2007.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Higgins, Andrew (19 November 2009). "A climate threat, rising from the soil". The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 December 2009.
- ^ Massicot, Paul. "Animal Info – Indonesia". Animal Info – Information on Endangered Mammals. Retrieved 14 August 2007.
- ^ "2016 Report". EPI Report. Yale University. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
- ^ EPI (2016): Indonesia Archived 21 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b "Impact Map | Climate Impact Lab". Climate Impact Lab. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
- ^ a b c d Case, M., Ardiansyah, F., Spector, E. (2007) 'Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature', Report for the World Wildlife Foundation. http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf Accessed 18/11/2018
- ^ "Climate change: Is the media failing us?". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
- ^ "Indonesia's daily floods due to climate change and environmental destruction". The Independent. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
- ^ Kimmelman, Michael (21 December 2017). "Jakarta Is Sinking So Fast, It Could End Up Underwater". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
- ^ The World Bank (2011) Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change: Indonesia. p.2 http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf Archived 6 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 18/11/2018
- ^ a b ABC Four Corners: Background information on Indonesia, deforestation and illegal logging Archived 16 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved 28 May 2010
- ^ Matthews, Emilly (ed.): The State of Forests Indonesia, Bogor 2002, Retrieved 28 May 2010
- ^ China is black hole of Asia's deforestation, Asia News, 24 March 2008
- ^ Riskanalys av glas, järn, betong och gips Archived 13 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine 29 March 2011. s.19–20 (in Swedish)
- ^ "Indonesia without trees? - Record breaking logging of last rainforests". foei.org. Friends of the Earth International. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
- ^ Slash and burn, Encyclopedia of Earth
- ^ "Japan depletes Borneo's rainforests; China remains largest log importer". News.mongabay.com. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
- ^ "Forensic Architecture". forensic-architecture.org. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
- ^ "Explainer: What is ecocide?". Eco-Business. 4 August 2022. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
- ^ Aida, Melly; Tahar, Abdul Muthalib; Davey, Orima (2023), Perdana, Ryzal; Putrawan, Gede Eka; Saputra, Bayu; Septiawan, Trio Yuda (eds.), "Ecocide in the International Law: Integration Between Environmental Rights and International Crime and Its Implementation in Indonesia", Proceedings of the 3rd Universitas Lampung International Conference on Social Sciences (ULICoSS 2022), vol. 740, Paris: Atlantis Press SARL, pp. 572–584, doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-046-6_57, ISBN 978-2-38476-045-9
- ^ Alberro, Heather; Daniele, Luigi (29 June 2021). "Ecocide: why establishing a new international crime would be a step towards interspecies justice". The Conversation. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
- ^ Setiyono, Joko; Natalis, Aga (30 December 2021). "Ecocides as a Serious Human Rights Violation: A Study on the Case of River Pollution by the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia". International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. 16 (8): 1465–1471. doi:10.18280/ijsdp.160807. ISSN 1743-7601. S2CID 245606762.
- ^ Higgins, Andrew (19 November 2009). "The Washington Post, November 19, 2009". Washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
- ^ "Indonesia's forest moratorium: A stepping stone to better forest governance?", CIFOR Working Paper 76, 2011
- ^ Bachelard, Michael: "World's worst illegal logging in Indonesia", in The Sydney Morning Herald, 30 June 2014
- ^ "Deforestation in Indonesia Is Double the Government's Official Rate", in Scientific American, 30 June 2014
- ^ "Deforestation In Indonesia Has Hit A Record Low". World Economic Forum. Retrieved 16 July 2021.