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Enigma tornado outbreak

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On February 19–20, 1884, one of the largest and most widespread tornado outbreaks in American history occurred over the Southeastern United States, known as the Enigma tornado outbreak due to the uncertain number of total tornadoes and fatalities. Nonetheless, an inspection of newspaper reports and governmental studies published in the aftermath reveals successive, long-tracked tornado families striking Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia, with an estimation of at least 51—and possibly 60 or more—tornadoes.

Enigma tornado outbreak
Tornado outbreak
Tornadoes~60±
Maximum ratingF4 tornado
DurationFebruary 19–20, 1884
Largest hail5 in (13 cm)
Overall effects
Fatalities≥ ~180
(unofficial estimates of 800–1,200)
Injuries≥ 1,056
Damage$3–4 million ($101,730,000–135,640,000 in 2024 USD)
Areas affectedSoutheastern United States
Part of the tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1884

The majority of reported tornado activity was seen across Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina, which were all struck severely by multiple waves of tornado families. In the Southeast, the outbreak began during the late morning in Mississippi, preceded by severe thunderstorms in Louisiana. Shortly thereafter, the outbreak widened and intensified, progressing from Alabama to Virginia between noon and midnight. The outbreak also produced the deadliest individual tornado in North Carolina history, an F4 which swept through the Rockingham area, killing 23.[nb 1][nb 2][nb 3]

Confirmed tornadoes

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The ratings for these tornadoes were done by meteorologist tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis and are not official ratings.

Confirmed tornadoes by Fujita rating
FU F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total
13 ? ? 25 9 4 0 ≥ 51*
List of confirmed tornadoes in the tornado outbreak of February 19–20, 1884
F# Location County / Parish State Date[nb 4] Time (UTC)[nb 4] Path length Width[nb 5]
F2 Louisville Winston Mississippi February 19 17:00–? Un­known 200 yd (180 m)
A mill and a pair of small homes were destroyed.[14]
F2 NE of Crawford (MS) to NW of Carrollton (AL) Lowndes (MS), Pickens (AL) Mississippi, Alabama February 19 17:30–? 25 mi (40 km) 300 yd (270 m)
1+ death – Sharecroppers' cabins were destroyed, and plantations near Columbus heavily damaged. Multiple people may have died in Mississippi. 20 injuries occurred.[14][15][16]
F2 SW of Clarksville to ENE of Hampton Station Montgomery Tennessee February 19 17:45–? Un­known 800 yd (730 m)
Many homes lost their roofs, and trees and fencing were felled. A large, domed warehouse lost its cupola and much of its roofing. Several other warehouses were unroofed, along with a number of businesses. Skylights and windows were shattered as well, a carriage house and carriage destroyed, chimneys knocked down, and a church twisted on its foundation. Half a dozen homes occupied by blacks were leveled, at least one of them a robust, frame structure. Three injuries were reported.[17]
F2 Cumming Forsyth Georgia February 19 18:20–? 10 mi (16 km) 100 yd (91 m)
1 death – 20 or more homes were destroyed or damaged. Entire swaths were reportedly leveled. 40 injuries occurred.[14]
F2 E of Columbus to Geneva Muscogee, Talbot Georgia February 19 18:30–? 25 mi (40 km) 100 yd (91 m)
This was probably a family of two tornadoes. Heavy damage occurred in the Columbus area, to mostly industrial property, totaling $85,000. Five injuries occurred. 5-inch-diameter (13 cm) hailstones were reported in Harris County, just north of Columbus.[18][15][19]
F2 N of Tallapoosa Haralson Georgia February 19 18:30–? Un­known Un­known
Many homes were destroyed. Several fatalities may have occurred. Two people were injured.[18]
F2 S of Rockford to E of Goodwater Coosa Alabama February 19 18:30–? 20 mi (32 km) Un­known
Schools and homes were wrecked. 15 injuries occurred, a number of which were by students. Fires erupted in Goodwater after the passing of the storm, damaging several homes.[14][16]
F4 S of Cartersville to Mount Oglethorpe Bartow, Cherokee, Pickens, Dawson Georgia February 19 19:00–? 40 mi (64 km) 1,500 yd (1,400 m)
22 deaths – This large, violent, long-tracked tornado formed from the same storm as the Tallapoosa F2. The tornado and downbursts combined to damage 3-mile-wide (4.8 km) areas. Most of the fatalities occurred near Jasper, Cagle and Tate, where numerous spacious, well-built homes belonging to "prominent" owners were swept away; a publication by meteorologist Thomas P. Grazulis in 1984 indicated that these homes may have incurred F5 damage. Three of the dead were schoolchildren who had been dismissed early and sheltered in an old home. A 15-mile-long (24 km) stretch of farmland and timberland was obliterated, and some of the dead were found 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km) distant. The tornado and downbursts altogether destroyed 50 sq mi (130 km2) of woodland. In all, 100 people were injured.[20][18][21]
F4 Oxmoor to SE of Branchville Jefferson, St. Clair Alabama February 19 19:20–? 30 mi (48 km) 400 yd (370 m)
13+ deaths – This extremely intense tornado, which formed just south of Birmingham, crossed the Cahaba Valley near Shades Mountain, injuring 15 people and wrecking nine homes at Brock Gap. At Leeds the tornado damaged a newly-built industrial area, where 27 homes, mostly constructed of brick, were destroyed, many of which were well built and obliterated, some along with their foundations. All known fatalities occurred in the Leeds area, but additional deaths may have occurred elsewhere, and the total number of dead may have exceeded 18. 30 people were injured along the path.[18][15]
F2 N of Lincoln Talladega, Calhoun Alabama February 19 19:45–? 5 mi (8.0 km) 200 yd (180 m)
Several homes were destroyed. 15 people were injured.[18][16]
F2 N of Watkinsville to Sandy Cross Oconee, Clarke, Oglethorpe Georgia February 19 20:00–? 20 mi (32 km) Un­known
This strong tornado damaged several small homes, injuring five people. A well-built barn was shattered and timberland flattened.[18]
F4 N of Jacksonville (AL) to N of Cave Spring (GA) Calhoun (AL), Cherokee (AL), Floyd (GA) Alabama, Georgia February 19 20:30–? 35 mi (56 km) 400 yd (370 m)
30+ deaths – This violent, long-lived tornado ravaged six or more rural communities in Alabama, causing 26 deaths, 10 of which occurred just north of Piedmont. 14 deaths were reported at Goshen, where a schoolmaster died and 25 pupils were injured; half a dozen of the latter may have died later. Frail housing "literally vanished," and cotton bales were moved 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km). In Georgia the tornado obliterated many large homes, killing four more people. In all, 100 people were injured.[18][21] Another F4 tornado, closely following the path of this one, hit the Piedmont–Goshen area and killed 20 people in a single church on March 27, 1994.
F2 Indian Springs to Smithboro Butts, Jasper, Putnam, Greene Georgia February 19 20:30–? 30 mi (48 km) 300 yd (270 m)
2+ deaths – This strong, long-tracked tornado wrecked several dozen tenant homes. Several people were severely injured. A third death may have been tornado-related but was not definitively attributable. The path was up to 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km) wide at times and passed north of Monticello. 30 people were injured.[18]
F3 E of Doraville to Hix Gwinnett, Barrow, Jackson, Madison Georgia February 19 20:30–? 50 mi (80 km) 500 yd (460 m)
2 deaths – This was probably an intense tornado family, individual members of which left 1⁄2-mile-wide (0.80 km) swaths of destruction. Damage may have begun in DeKalb County, where structures were felled. Farmhouses—some of which were reportedly "leveled"—and miles of forest were destroyed. The deaths occurred in a boarding house. 35 people were injured.[18]
F2 Franklin to Palmetto Heard, Coweta, Fulton Georgia February 19 20:30–? ≥ 20 mi (32 km) 400 yd (370 m)
1+ death – Damage occurred northwest of Newnan and in Palmetto. At least three strong tornadoes, occurring in quick succession, affected the same area, each of which was likely of at least F2 status. At least five fatalities may have occurred. 30 injuries were reported.[18][15]
F3 NW of Lula to S of Toccoa Hall, Banks, Habersham, Stephens Georgia February 19 20:30–? 25 mi (40 km) 300 yd (270 m)
2+ deaths – This intense tornado passed south of Mount Airy, sweeping away a home in Banks County. A third death was unconfirmed. The tornado wrecked 14 or more homes, along with many miles of timberland. 20 people were injured.[18]
F3 Hillsboro to SE of Eatonton Jasper, Putnam, Hancock Georgia February 19 21:00–? 30 mi (48 km) 400 yd (370 m)
8+ deaths – This intense tornado destroyed a plantation, killing seven or more tenants and a woman. Many small homes were leveled on the plantation. 10 or more additional deaths may have taken place among sharecroppers elsewhere, but were never verified. 50 injuries were confirmed. In 1984 Grazulis listed this tornado as an F4, but downgraded it to F3 in his later work.[20][18]
F3 Maynard to Blountsville to NW of Milledgeville Monroe, Jones, Baldwin Georgia February 19 21:15–? 30 mi (48 km) 200 yd (180 m)
12 deaths – Large homes were swept away in Jones County, along with many smaller homes. Eyewitnesses north of Macon described a multiple-vortex storm, preceded by 3-inch-diameter (7.6 cm) hail. 50 injuries occurred. In 1984 Grazulis listed this tornado as an F4, but downgraded it to F3 in his later work.[20][18][15]
FU Marietta Pickens, Greenville South Carolina February 19 21:30–? Un­known Un­known
A church and many small homes destroyed in the Marietta area, at the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains in northwestern Greenville County. Damage from downbursts or a series of small tornadoes continued into Rutherford County, North Carolina.[15][19]
FU Brevard to S of Marion Transylvania, Henderson, Buncombe, McDowell North Carolina February 19 21:30–? Un­known Un­known
This complex series of small, short-lived tornadoes and/or violent downbursts originated in the upper French Broad valley, before descending the Blue Ridge.[15][22]
F2 N of Woodruff to Pacolet Spartanburg, Cherokee South Carolina February 19 21:30–? Un­known Un­known
Many barns and small homes were wrecked, and a larger home was unroofed. Six people were injured. The tornado passed near Glenn Springs.[18][15]
F2 S of Highgrove to E of Fairfield Nelson, Spencer Kentucky February 19 21:30–? 9 mi (14 km) 200 yd (180 m)
1 death – Six or more homes were destroyed and 30 people injured in the Highgrove area. The sole fatality occurred in a barn.[23][21]
F3 N of Sparta to N of Thomson Hancock, Warren, McDuffie, Columbia Georgia February 19 22:00–? 45 mi (72 km) 200 yd (180 m)
2+ deaths – This tornado family formed from the same storm as the Hillsboro F3. Farms and small homes were destroyed at multiple locations. A train derailed northwest of Augusta. Substantial hail accumulations were reported in Warren County. At least two additional deaths may have occurred. 15 people were injured. In 1984 Grazulis listed this tornado as an F4, but downgraded it to F3 in his later work.[20][10][15][19]
F3 S of Anderson Anderson, Greenville South Carolina February 19 22:30–? 10 mi (16 km) 400 yd (370 m)
2+ deaths – This multiple-vortex tornado or family passed through a mill/village complex, destroying at least 12 small homes, along with several larger homes and a tenant home. One or more additional deaths may have occurred. 20 people were injured.[10][15]
F2 S of Washington to S of Lincolnton Wilkes, Lincoln Georgia February 19 22:30–? 20 mi (32 km) 600 yd (550 m)
7+ deaths – Deaths, mainly those of children, occurred on a pair of plantations. Some reports indicated as many as 20 fatalities. 40 people were injured.[10]
FU Chester Chester South Carolina February 19 23:00–? Un­known Un­known
Severe damage occurred in downtown Chester, with 40 homes damaged or destroyed elsewhere in town. Losses totaled $50,000.[15]
F2 S of Thomson to Harlem McDuffie, Columbia Georgia February 19 23:00–? 10 mi (16 km) Un­known
This tornado hit five plantations, destroying many cotton gins, mills, tenant homes, and small homes. Seven injuries occurred.[10]
F3 S of Tennille to Davisboro Washington, Jefferson Georgia February 19 23:00–? 35 mi (56 km) 500 yd (460 m)
4 deaths – This intense tornado family occurred within a wider complex of downbursts, which combined to create a broad damage swath. The business district of Davisboro was devastated, with every business in downtown destroyed; losses there totaled 30 stores and homes. Debris was carried for 52 mi (84 km). 30 people were injured and losses totaled at least $100,000.[10][15]
F2 S of Shelton to Woodward to S of Lancaster Fairfield, Chester, Lancaster South Carolina February 19 23:15–? 35 mi (56 km) 200 yd (180 m)
3 deaths – A damage swath peaked at 1+1⁄2 mi (2.4 km) wide; eyewitness accounts from Lancaster (the storm passed immediately south of town) would suggest that this was a tornado/downburst complex and likely a family of multiple tornadoes. The parent supercell later produced the Polkton F3 in North Carolina, and small tornadoes or downbursts linked the paths of these larger storms. 10 people were injured.[10][24]
F2 Phoenix to Silverstreet Greenwood, Newberry South Carolina February 19 23:30–? 35 mi (56 km) 400 yd (370 m)
5 deaths – 12 plantations were heavily damaged; a large home was destroyed near Ninety Six, and most buildings in Chappells were damaged or destroyed. Eight train cars were thrown. 30 people were injured.[10][15]
F2 N of Newberry to N of Winnsboro Newberry, Fairfield South Carolina February 19 23:45–? 25 mi (40 km) 400 yd (370 m)
2 deaths – Several hundred acres of timber were destroyed in eastern Newberry and western Fairfield counties, particularly near the Broad River. Deaths were in tenant homes in the White Oak area. 15 injuries occurred.[10][21]
F2 S of Wrightsville to Herndon Johnson, Emanuel, Jenkins Georgia February 19 00:00–? 35 mi (56 km) Un­known
1 death – This was a probable tornado family. Four people were injured.[10]
F2 N of Waynesboro (GA) to Jackson (SC) Burke (GA), Richmond (GA), Aiken (SC) Georgia, South Carolina February 19 00:00–? 20 mi (32 km) 200 yd (180 m)
5 deaths – This storm passed south of Augusta, beginning at the McBean railroad depot; most damage occurred near Ellenton, South Carolina, where numerous structures and farms were impacted. The depot at Jackson was leveled, and many other structures were damaged or destroyed in and near town, including tenant homes. 30 people were injured.[10][15]
FU Olin Iredell North Carolina February 19 00:30–? 7 mi (11 km) Un­known
Damage occurred to a church and to farm buildings.[25]
F3 SE of Monroe to S of Troy Union, Anson, Richmond, Montgomery North Carolina February 19 01:00–? 35 mi (56 km) 400 yd (370 m)
4 deaths – See section on this tornado – 50 people were injured.[10][15][22]
F2 Pioneer Mills to W of Troy Cabarrus, Stanly, Montgomery North Carolina February 19 02:00–? 25 mi (40 km) Un­known
1+ death – See section on this tornado – 25 people were injured.[10][21][22]
F4 Morven to Johnsonville Anson, Richmond, Moore, Harnett North Carolina February 19 02:30–? 50 mi (80 km) 500 yd (460 m)
23+ deaths – See section on this tornado – 100 people were injured.[10][15][22]
FU Laurinburg Scotland North Carolina February 19 03:00–? Un­known Un­known
"Severe damage" was reported.[22]
F2 Cary Wake North Carolina February 19 03:00–? 6 mi (9.7 km) Un­known
1 death – This storm was preceded by very large hail[citation needed], and was illuminated by continual lightning and unusual optical phenomena. Several small homes were destroyed in Cary. Five people were injured.[10]
F2 Lillington to W of Smithfield Harnett, Johnston North Carolina February 19 04:00–? 10 mi (16 km) 400 yd (370 m)
2+ deaths – A 1⁄2-mile-wide (0.80 km) swath of damage was reported. Five or more small farmhouses were destroyed in Johnston County, including tenant homes. Four additional fatalities may have occurred. 20 injuries occurred.[10][21][24]
FU SE of Zebulon to NE of Rocky Mount Johnston, Nash, Edgecombe North Carolina February 19 04:30–? Un­known Un­known
Two churches and several homes in Rocky Mount were damaged.[21][19][24]
F3 Darlington Darlington South Carolina February 19 04:30–? 5 mi (8.0 km) 150 yd (140 m)
6+ deaths – This intense tornado passed very close to downtown Darlington, destroying at least 30 homes, one of whose debris was carried for miles, and unroofing a railroad depot. Five-sixths of the homes were small. Downburst damage continued to Robeson County, North Carolina. Four more people may have died of injuries. 50 people were injured.[10][15][22]
FU Marion Perry Alabama February 19 Un­known Un­known Un­known
1 death – Damage was reported in Marion.[21]
FU Guntersville Cullman, Marshall Alabama February 19 Un­known Un­known Un­known
Details are unavailable.[21][26]
FU Caseyville St. Clair Illinois February 19 Un­known Un­known Un­known
Details are unavailable.[21]
FU Metropolis Massac Illinois February 19 Un­known Un­known Un­known
Many homes were destroyed, along with a church.[21]
FU Paducah McCracken Kentucky February 19 Un­known Un­known Un­known
A tobacco warehouse and other large buildings were damaged or destroyed.[21]
FU Franklin Simpson Kentucky February 19 Un­known Un­known Un­known
A factory was destroyed.[21]
FU W of Petersburg Dinwiddie, Chesterfield Virginia February 20 06:00–? Un­known Un­known
A tornado/downburst complex of unknown magnitude passed near Petersburg, where downburst damage was noted throughout the city.[15]
F2 S of Branchville Orangeburg South Carolina February 20 06:00–? Un­known Un­known
Five homes were destroyed. A dozen people were injured.[10]
F2 S of Foreston Clarendon, Williamsburg South Carolina February 20 07:00–? 10 mi (16 km) 600 yd (550 m)
4 deaths – Most of the severest damage was south of Foreston. Six homes were wrecked. 10 people were injured.[10]

Polkton–Ansonville–Mangum–Pekin, North Carolina

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Polkton–Ansonville–Mangum–Pekin, North Carolina
F3 tornado
Max. rating1F3 tornado
Fatalities4 fatalities, 50 injuries
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale

This was the first of a number of destructive North Carolina storms. Detailed coverage in a Wadesboro-based newspaper provides an unusually (by 19th-century standards) precise survey of the movement and damage produced by three of those storms in the southern Piedmont of North Carolina. This storm first formed in southeastern Union County, from a supercell that had produced significant damage in South Carolina earlier. Most of the path of this storm was in rural areas, with injuries and major damage along Beaverdam Creek, south of Marshville in Union County, and along Brown Creek in Anson County, northeast of Polkton.

Significant damage also occurred in and around the towns of Polkton and Ansonville, where structures in both towns were widely damaged, with homes and farm buildings destroyed south of Ansonville. A total of four people were killed: a pair in a "'mansion'" that was destroyed, and another pair in one of 28 homes that were wrecked on a plantation. Eyewitnesses in Polkton noted that the storm "crossed the railroad about a mile east of Polkton last night prostrating everything in its course. Could see the storm from Polkton by lightning, looked like a cloud of dense smoke and sounded like thunder. Hail stones measuring 2+1⁄2 in (6.4 cm) long, 1+1⁄2 in (3.8 cm) wide and 1 in (2.5 cm) thick fell."

Homes were also destroyed near Mangum in Richmond County and near Pekin in Montgomery County.[27]

Pioneer Mills, North Carolina

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Pioneer Mills, North Carolina
F2 tornado
Max. rating1F2 tornado
Fatalities≥ 1 fatality, 25 injuries
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale

This storm was preceded and followed by a wide area of downburst damage – with scattered areas of damage to farms and small structures reported across a wide area of southern Cabarrus County, eastern Mecklenburg County (northeast of Mint Hill) and the Goose Creek area of northwestern Union County.

The first tornado-specific damage occurred in the Pioneer Mills community between Harrisburg and Midland in Cabarrus County, where a mill was destroyed and estimated F2 damage was inflicted upon several residences, including several small and a few larger homes that were wrecked. The storm passed within 2 mi (3.2 km) of Albemarle; little damage was recorded elsewhere in Stanly County. Several poorly constructed buildings were destroyed along the Uwharrie River in Montgomery County, and damage to farms was widespread in the county. One person was killed, but there may have been other deaths. Downburst damage continued to southwest of Asheboro.[28]

Pee Dee–Rockingham–Philadelphia–Manly, North Carolina

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Pee Dee–Rockingham–Philadelphia–Manly, North Carolina
F4 tornado
Max. rating1F4 tornado
Fatalities≥ 23 fatalities, 100 injuries
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale

Spawned late in the outbreak, the storm which swept from Anson to Harnett Counties in North Carolina passed through the Rockingham area, and became the deadliest tornado in recorded North Carolina history. This storm first touched down east of the town of McFarlan, in southeastern Anson County. The storm produced little damage in Anson County, but caused two deaths south of Pee Dee.

Tracking to the northeast, it crossed the Pee Dee River into Richmond County and produced sporadic damage until just southeast of Rockingham. Extreme damage to pine forests was first noted just south of town. Strengthening considerably, the storm swept through the southeast edge of Rockingham, where large homes were destroyed to their foundations, and large hardwood trees were snapped at ground level. The Philadelphia Church community (presently on U.S. Highway 1, 3 mi (4.8 km) northeast of downtown Rockingham) was devastated, with most of the poorly constructed dwellings in the community completely destroyed. 15 or more deaths occurred there. The storm had widened to nearly 1 mi (1.6 km) in width at this point.

Forests and rural homes were flattened in and beyond Philadelphia. The storm then tracked through what is now the town of Hoffman, before entering Moore County. Severe damage was again seen in the communities of Keyser and Manly (presently at the northeast corner of the city of Southern Pines), along the southeast edge of Moore County. The storm then curved slightly to the east, dissipating into a wide area of downburst damage near the community of Johnsonville. A total of at least 23 people were killed, for many of the injured may have died later. Eyewitnesses reported large hail and intense lightning displays preceding the storm.

An unusually detailed accounting of the storm's passage through Richmond County was provided two days later: a local resident undertook an informal, but detailed survey of the damage produced by the storm, and this account was published in an Anson County newspaper. This accounting establishes a steady southwest-to-northeast movement through the county, with a number of buildings—sharecropper cabins, large homes, and a mill—swept away along the path. As the storm passed 1 mi (1.6 km) southeast of downtown Rockingham, it may have peaked in intensity; it was noted that all structures along a 5-mile-long (8.0 km) segment of the path (beginning at this point) were destroyed. The surveyor noted a path width of 1⁄4–1⁄2 mi (0.40–0.80 km), with the most extreme damage (and most deaths) in the Philadelphia Church community. The surveyor noted that:

Trees were taken up by the roots and hurled with fearful rapidity through the air and those not uprooted had all the bark taken off. The scene after the storm, particularly the position of the prostrate trees, indicated a convergence toward the center, as if a vacuum was created there and the wind rushed in from either side to fill it.

A second, detailed survey of the path was made 10 days later by J. A. Holmes; his findings were published in the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society journal for 1884.[29]

Non-tornadic effects

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Elsewhere, wind damage, flash floods and derecho-like effects were also reported in published accounts of the outbreak. Homes were swept away by water in Louisville, Kentucky, New Albany, Indiana, and Jeffersonville, Indiana, as well as in other towns along the Ohio River. Blizzard conditions occurred in the eastern Midwest. In Tennessee the mid-latitude system associated with the outbreak generated severe thunderstorms that produced strong, destructive winds on February 19. These winds caused "great" damage to forestland, fencing, and housing, especially in and near Clarksville.[30]

Aftermath, recovery, and records

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The total impact of the outbreak was never adequately quantified and hence has been considered enigmatic. Individual deaths may have been counted multiple times, leading to an exaggerated death toll, but on the other hand rural Black dead may have been undercounted, many of whom were undocumented sharecroppers. Of thousands reported dead, the names of fewer than 100 could be verified. According to an article appearing in the Statesville (NC) Landmark three days later, the damage tally in Georgia alone was estimated to be $1 million, in 1884 dollars. Tabulations from 1884 estimate a total of $3–4 million in tornado damage (with an unknown amount of flood and other damage), with 10,000 structures destroyed, as many as 800 dead, and up to 2,500 injured. The same reported an estimated 60 tornadoes and called the outbreak the worst in U.S. history to date. Between 10,000 and 15,000 people were reportedly rendered homeless and even said to be "starving". The outbreak produced the largest 24-hour total of killer tornadoes until the 1974 Super Outbreak. The precise number of tornadoes as well as fatalities incurred during the outbreak is unknown, but the death toll was variously estimated to range from 370 to 2,000 at the time. A reliable survey by the Signal Corps in 1889 located 182 fatalities, and a reanalysis by tornado researcher Thomas P. Grazulis in 1993 counted 178 deaths.[31]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ An outbreak is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An outbreak sequence, prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one significant (F2 or stronger) tornado.[1]
  2. ^ The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[2][3] While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007,[4] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[5] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[6]
  3. ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[7] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[8] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[9]
  4. ^ a b All dates are based on the local time zone where the tornado touched down; however, all times are in Coordinated Universal Time and dates are split at midnight CST/CDT for consistency.
  5. ^ The listed width values are primarily the average/mean width of the tornadoes, with those having known maximum widths denoted by ♯. From 1952 to 1994, reports largely list mean width whereas contemporary years list maximum width.[11] Values provided by Grazulis are the average width, with estimates being rounded down (i.e. 0.5 mi (0.80 km) is rounded down from 880 yards to 800 yards.[12][13]

References

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  1. ^ Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E.; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) (PDF). 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
  2. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 141.
  3. ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 131.
  4. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  5. ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  6. ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  7. ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–4.
  8. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)". Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  9. ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Grazulis 1993, p. 626.
  11. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1494.
  12. ^ Brooks 2004, p. 310.
  13. ^ Grazulis 1990, p. ix.
  14. ^ a b c d Grazulis 1993, p. 624.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r New York Times, New York. February 21, 1884.
  16. ^ a b c National Weather Service (June 20, 2006). "Alabama Tornado Database 1884". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office Birmingham, AL. Calera, Alabama: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on October 13, 2008. Retrieved May 14, 2023.
  17. ^ National Weather Service (2017). Written at Old Hickory, Tennessee. NWS Nashville Tornado Database (Report). Mississippi State, Mississippi. Retrieved February 8, 2023 – via Mississippi State University.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Grazulis 1993, p. 625.
  19. ^ a b c d Oshkosh Daily Northwestern, Oshkosh, Wisconsin. February 23, 1884.
  20. ^ a b c d Grazulis 1984, p. A-9.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Fort Wayne Daily Gazette, Fort Wayne, Indiana. February 22, 1884.
  22. ^ a b c d e f Anson Times, Wadesboro, North Carolina. February 21, 1884.
  23. ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 625–6.
  24. ^ a b c Sioux Valley News, Correctionville, Iowa. February 28, 1884.
  25. ^ The (Statesville) Landmark, Statesville North Carolina. February 22, 1884.
  26. ^ Stevens 1925, p. 438.
  27. ^ Multiple sources:
    • Anson Times, Wadesboro, North Carolina. February 21, 1884.
    • Grazulis 1993, p. 626
    • New York Times, New York. February 21, 1884.
  28. ^ Multiple sources:
    • Anson Times, Wadesboro, North Carolina. February 21, 1884.
    • Fort Wayne Daily Gazette, Fort Wayne, Indiana. February 22, 1884.
    • Grazulis 1993, p. 626
  29. ^ Multiple sources:
  30. ^ Signal Corps 1884, p. 61.
  31. ^ Multiple sources:

Sources

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