Erik Erikson

For other people with similar names, see Eric Erickson (disambiguation).

Erik Homburger Erikson (born Erik Salomonsen; 15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) was an American child psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He coined the phrase identity crisis.

Erik Erikson
Born	Erik Salomonsen (1902-06-15)15 June 1902 Frankfurt, Hesse, German Empire
Died	12 May 1994(1994-05-12) (aged 91) Harwich, Massachusetts, U.S.
Citizenship	American German
Spouse	Joan Serson ​ (m. 1930)​
Children	4, including Kai T. Erikson
Awards	Pulitzer Prize (1970) National Book Award (1970)
Academic background
Influences	Ruth Benedict Anna Freud Sigmund Freud Margaret Mead
Academic work
Discipline	Psychology
Sub-discipline	Developmental psychology psychoanalysis
Institutions	Yale University University of California, Berkeley University of Pittsburgh Harvard University
Notable students	Richard Sennett
Notable works	Childhood and Society (1950) Young Man Luther (1958) Gandhi's Truth (1969) The Life Cycle Completed (1987)
Notable ideas	Theory on psychological development
Influenced	Eric Berne Robert Coles James W. Fowler Howard Gardner James Marcia

Despite lacking a university degree, Erikson served as a professor at prominent institutions, including Harvard, University of California, Berkeley, and Yale. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century.

Early life

Erikson's mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominent Jewish family in Copenhagen, Denmark. She was married to Jewish stockbroker Valdemar Isidor Salomonsen but had been estranged from him for several months at the time Erik was conceived. Little is known about Erik's biological father except that he was a non-Jewish Dane. On discovering her pregnancy, Karla fled to Frankfurt am Main in Germany where Erik was born on 15 June 1902 and was given the surname Salomonsen. She fled due to conceiving Erik out of wedlock, and the identity of Erik's birth father was never made clear.

Following Erik's birth, Karla trained to be a nurse and moved to Karlsruhe, Germany. In 1905 she married a Jewish pediatrician, Theodor Homburger. In 1908, Erik Salomonsen's name was changed to Erik Homburger, and in 1911 he was officially adopted by his stepfather. Karla and Theodor told Erik that Theodor was his real father, only revealing the truth to him in late childhood; he remained bitter about the deception all his life.

The development of identity seems to have been one of Erikson's greatest concerns in his own life as well as being central to his theoretical work. As an older adult, he wrote about his adolescent "identity confusion" in his European days. "My identity confusion", he wrote, "[was at times on] the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis." Erikson's daughter wrote that her father's "real psychoanalytic identity" was not established until he "replaced his stepfather's surname [Homburger] with a name of his invention [Erikson]." The decision to change his last name came about as he started his job at Yale, and the "Erikson" name was accepted by Erik's family when they became American citizens. It is said his children enjoyed the fact they would not be called "Hamburger" any longer.

Erik was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion. Due to these mixed identities, he was a target of bigotry by both Jewish and gentile children. At temple school, his peers teased him for being Nordic; while at grammar school, he was teased for being Jewish. At Das Humanistische Gymnasium his main interests were art, history, and languages, but he lacked a general interest in school and graduated without academic distinction. After graduation, instead of attending medical school as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in Munich, much to the liking of his mother and her friends.

Uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, Erik dropped out of school and began a lengthy period of roaming about Germany and Italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend Peter Blos and others. For children from prominent German families, taking a "wandering year" was not uncommon. During his travels, he often sold or traded his sketches to people he met. Eventually, Erik realized he would never become a full-time artist and returned to Karlsruhe and became an art teacher. During the time he worked at his teaching job, Erik was hired by an heiress to sketch and eventually tutor her children. Erik worked very well with these children and was eventually hired by many other families that were close to Anna and Sigmund Freud. This teaching extended into a small experimental school based in the house of Eva Rosenfeld.During this period, which lasted until he was twenty-five years old, he continued to contend with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious, and national identity.

Psychoanalytic experience and training

When Erikson was twenty-five, his friend Peter Blos invited him to Vienna to tutor art at the small Burlingham-Rosenfeld School for children whose affluent parents were undergoing psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Anna noticed Erikson's sensitivity to children at the school and encouraged him to study psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, where prominent analysts August Aichhorn, Heinz Hartmann, and Paul Federn were among those who supervised his theoretical studies. He specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. Helene Deutsch and Edward Bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult. Simultaneously he studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development and sexual stages. In 1933 he received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute. This and his Montessori diploma were to be Erikson's only earned credentials for his life's work.

United States

In 1930 Erikson married Joan Mowat Serson, a Canadian dancer and artist whom Erikson had met at a dress ball. During their marriage, Erikson converted to Christianity. In 1933, with Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany, the burning of Freud's books in Berlin and the potential Nazi threat to Austria, the family left an impoverished Vienna with their two young sons and emigrated to Copenhagen. Unable to regain Danish citizenship because of residence requirements, the family left for the United States, where citizenship would not be an issue.

In the United States, Erikson became the first child psychoanalyst in Boston and held positions at Massachusetts General Hospital, the Judge Baker Guidance Center, and at Harvard Medical School and Psychological Clinic. This was while he was establishing a singular reputation as a clinician. In 1936, Erikson left Harvard and joined the staff at Yale University, where he worked at the Institute of Social Relations and taught at the medical school.

Erikson continued to deepen his interest in areas beyond psychoanalysis and to explore connections between psychology and anthropology. He made important contacts with anthropologists such as Margaret Mead, Gregory Bateson, and Ruth Benedict. Erikson said his theory of the development of thought derived from his social and cultural studies. In 1938, he left Yale to study the Sioux tribe in South Dakota on their reservation. After his studies in South Dakota, he traveled to California to study the Yurok tribe. Erikson discovered differences between the children of the Sioux and Yurok tribes. This marked the beginning of Erikson's life passion of showing the importance of events in childhood and how society affects them.

In 1939 he left Yale, and the Eriksons moved to California, where Erik had been invited to join a team engaged in a longitudinal study of child development for the University of California at Berkeley's Institute of Child Welfare. In addition, in San Francisco, he opened a private practice in child psychoanalysis.

While in California he was able to make his second study of American Indian children when he joined anthropologist Alfred Kroeber on a field trip to Northern California to study the Yurok.

In 1950, after publishing the book, Childhood and Society, for which he is best known, Erikson left the University of California when California's Levering Act required professors there to sign loyalty oaths. From 1951 to 1960 he worked and taught at the Austen Riggs Center, a prominent psychiatric treatment facility in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where he worked with emotionally troubled young people. Another famous Stockbridge resident, Norman Rockwell, became Erikson's patient and friend. During this time he also served as a visiting professor at the University of Pittsburgh where he worked with Benjamin Spock and Fred Rogers at Arsenal Nursery School of the Western Psychiatric Institute.

He returned to Harvard in the 1960s as a professor of human development and remained there until his retirement in 1970. In 1973 the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Erikson for the Jefferson Lecture, the United States' highest honor for achievement in the humanities. Erikson's lecture was titled Dimensions of a New Identity.

Theories of development and the ego

Erikson is credited with being one of the originators of ego psychology, which emphasized the role of the ego as being more than a servant of the id. Although Erikson accepted Freud's theory, he did not focus on the parent-child relationship and gave more importance to the role of the ego, particularly the person's progression as self. According to Erikson, the environment in which a child lived was crucial to providing growth, adjustment, a source of self-awareness and identity. Erikson won a Pulitzer Prize and a US National Book Award in category Philosophy and Religion for Gandhi's Truth (1969), which focused more on his theory as applied to later phases in the life cycle.

In Erikson's discussion of development, he rarely mentioned a stage of development by age. In fact he referred to it as a prolonged adolescence which has led to further investigation into a period of development between adolescence and young adulthood called emerging adulthood. Erikson's theory of development includes various psychosocial crises where each conflict builds off of the previous stages. The result of each conflict can have negative or positive impacts on a person's development, however, a negative outcome can be revisited and readdressed throughout the life span. On ego identity versus role confusion: ego identity enables each person to have a sense of individuality, or as Erikson would say, "Ego identity, then, in its subjective aspect, is the awareness of the fact that there is a self-sameness and continuity to the ego's synthesizing methods and a continuity of one's meaning for others". Role confusion, however, is, according to Barbara Engler, "the inability to conceive of oneself as a productive member of one's own society." This inability to conceive of oneself as a productive member is a great danger; it can occur during adolescence, when looking for an occupation.

Theory of personality

Main article: Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

The Erikson life-stages, in order of the eight stages in which they may be acquired, are listed below, as well as the "virtues" that Erikson has attached to these stages, (these virtues are underlined).

1. Hope: basic trust vs. basic mistrust

This stage covers the period of infancy, 0–1½ years old, which is the most fundamental stage of life, as this is the stage that all other ones build on. Whether the baby develops basic trust or basic mistrust is not merely a matter of nurture. It is multi-faceted and has strong social components. It depends on the quality of the maternal relationship. The mother carries out and reflects her inner perceptions of trustworthiness, a sense of personal meaning, etc. on the child. An important part of this stage is providing stable and constant care of the infant. This helps the child develop trust that can transition into relationships other than parental. Additionally, children develop trust in others to support them. If successful in this, the baby develops a sense of trust, which "forms the basis in the child for a sense of identity." Failure to develop this trust will result in a feeling of fear and a sense that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

2. Will: autonomy vs. shame

This stage covers early childhood around 1½–3 years old and introduces the concept of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. The child begins to discover the beginnings of their independence, and parents must facilitate the child's sense of doing basic tasks "all by themselves." Discouragement can lead to the child doubting their efficacy. During this stage the child is usually trying to master toilet training. Additionally, the child discovers their talents or abilities, and it is important to ensure the child is able to explore those activities. Erikson states it is essential to allow the children freedom in exploration but also create an environment welcoming of failures. Therefore, the parent should not punish or reprimand the child for failing at the task. Shame and doubt occurs when the child feels incompetent in ability to complete tasks and survive. Will is achieved with success of this stage. Children successful in this stage will have "self-control without a loss of self-esteem."

3. Purpose: initiative vs. guilt

This stage covers preschool children from ages three to five. Does the child have the ability to do things on their own, such as dress themselves? Children in this stage are interacting with peers, and creating their own games and activities. Children in this stage practice independence and start to make their own decisions. If allowed to make these decisions, the child will develop confidence in their ability to lead others. If the child is not allowed to make certain decisions, then a sense of guilt develops. Guilt in this stage is characterized by a sense of being a burden to others, and the child will therefore usually present themselves as a follower as they lack the confidence to do otherwise. Additionally, the child is asking many questions to build knowledge of the world. If the questions earn responses that are critical and condescending, the child will also develop feelings of guilt. Success in this stage leads to the virtue of purpose, which is the normal balance between the two extremes.

4. Competence: industry vs. inferiority

This area coincides with the "latency" period of psychoanalysis and covers school age children before adolescence. Children compare their self worth to others around them. Friends can have a significant impact on the growth of the child. The child can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior. During this stage the child's friend group increases in importance in their life. Often during this stage the child will try to prove competency with things rewarded in society, and also develop satisfaction with their abilities. Encouraging the child increases feelings of adequacy and competency in ability to reach goals. Restriction from teachers or parents leads to doubt, questioning, and reluctance in abilities and therefore may not reach full capabilities. Competence, the virtue of this stage, is developed when a healthy balance between the two extremes is reached.

5. Fidelity: identity vs. role confusion

This section deals with adolescence, meaning those between twelve and eighteen years old. This occurs when we start to question ourselves and ask questions relevant to who we are and what we want to accomplish. Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? The adolescent is exploring and seeking for their own unique identity. This is done by looking at personal beliefs, goals, and values. The morality of the individual is also explored and developed. Erikson believes that if the parents allow the child to explore, they will determine their own identity. If, however, the parents continually push them to conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion. The teen is also looking towards the future in terms of employment, relationships, and families. Learning the roles they provide in society is essential since the teen begins to develop the desire to fit into society. Fidelity is characterized by the ability to commit to others and acceptance of others even with differences. Identity crisis is the result of role confusion and can cause the adolescent to try out different lifestyles.

6. Love: intimacy vs. isolation

This is the first stage of adult development. This development usually happens during young adulthood, which is between the ages of 18 and 40. This stage marks a transition from just thinking about ourselves to thinking about other people in the world. We are social creatures and as a result need to be with other people and form relationships with them. Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during this stage in their life. This is due to the increase in the growth of intimate relationships with others.

Ego development earlier in life (middle adolescence) is a strong predictor of how well intimacy for romantic relationships will transpire in emerging adulthood. By successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience love and intimacy. They also feel safety, care, and commitment in these relationships. Furthermore, if individuals are able to successfully resolve the crisis of intimacy versus isolation, they are able to achieve the virtue of love. Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone.

7. Care: generativity vs. stagnation

The second stage of adulthood happens between the ages of 40 and 65. During this time people are normally settled in their lives and know what is important to them. A person is either making progress in their career or treading lightly in their career and unsure if this is what they want to do for the rest of their working life. Also during this time, a person may be raising their children. If they are a parent, then they are reevaluating their life roles. This is one way of contributing to society along with productivity at work and involvement in community activities and organizations. Individuals that exercise the concept of generativity believe in the next generation and seek to nurture them in creative ways through practices such as parenting, teaching, and mentoring. Having a sense of generativity can be considered significant for both the individual and the society, exemplifying their roles as effective parents, leaders for organizations, etc. If a person is not comfortable with the way their life is progressing, they're usually regretful about the decisions that they have made in the past and feels a sense of uselessness.

8. Wisdom: ego integrity vs. despair

This stage affects the age group of 65 and on. During this time an individual has reached the last chapter in their life and retirement is approaching or has already taken place. Individuals in this stage must learn to accept the course of their life or they will look back on it with despair. Ego-integrity means the acceptance of life in its fullness: the victories and the defeats, what was accomplished and what was not accomplished. Wisdom is the result of successfully accomplishing this final developmental task. Wisdom is defined as "informed and detached concern for life itself in the face of death itself." Having a guilty conscience about the past or failing to accomplish important goals will eventually lead to depression and hopelessness. Achieving the virtue of the stage involves the feeling of living a successful life.

Ninth stage

For the Ninth Stage see Erikson's stages of psychosocial development § Ninth Stage.

Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as virtues, a term used in the context of Erikson's work as it is applied to medicine, meaning "potencies". These virtues are also interpreted to be the same as "strengths", which are considered inherent in the individual life cycle and in the sequence of generations. Erikson's research suggests that each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another, not rejecting one end of the tension or the other. Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, 'trust' and 'mis-trust' must both be understood and accepted, in order for realistic 'hope' to emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. Similarly, 'integrity' and 'despair' must both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable 'wisdom' to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage.

Psychology of religion

Psychoanalytic writers have always engaged in nonclinical interpretation of cultural phenomena such as art, religion, and historical movements. Erik Erikson gave such a strong contribution that his work was well received by students of religion and spurred various secondary literature.

Erikson's psychology of religion begins with an acknowledgement of how religious tradition can have an interplay with a child's basic sense of trust or mistrust. With regard to Erikson's theory of personality as expressed in his eight stages of the life cycle, each with their different tasks to master, each also included a corresponding virtue, as mentioned above, which form a taxonomy for religious and ethical life. Erikson extends this construct by emphasizing that human individual and social life is characterized by ritualization, "an agreed-upon interplay between at least two persons who repeat it at meaningful intervals and in recurring contexts." Such ritualization involves careful attentiveness to what can be called ceremonial forms and details, higher symbolic meanings, active engagement of participants, and a feeling of absolute necessity. Each life cycle stage includes its own ritualization with a corresponding ritualism: numinous vs. idolism, judicious vs. legalism, dramatic vs. impersonation, formal vs. formalism, ideological vs. totalism, affiliative vs. elitism, generational vs. authoritism, and integral vs. dogmatism.

Perhaps Erikson's best-known contributions to the psychology of religion were his book length psychobiographies, Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History, on Martin Luther, and Gandhi's Truth, on Mohandas K. Gandhi, for which he remarkably won the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award. Both books attempt to show how childhood development and parental influence, social and cultural context, even political crises form a confluence with personal identity. These studies demonstrate how each influential person discovered mastery, both individually and socially, in what Erikson would call the historical moment. Individuals like Luther or Gandhi were what Erikson called a Homo Religiosus, individuals for whom the final life cycle challenge of integrity vs. despair is a lifelong crisis, and they become gifted innovators whose own psychological cure becomes an ideological breakthrough for their time.

Personal life

Erikson married Canadian-born American dancer and artist Joan Erikson (née Sarah Lucretia Serson) in 1930 and they remained together until his death.

The Eriksons had four children: Kai T. Erikson, Jon Erikson, Sue Erikson Bloland, and Neil Erikson. His eldest son, Kai T. Erikson, is an American sociologist. Their daughter, Sue, "an integrative psychotherapist and psychoanalyst", described her father as plagued by "lifelong feelings of personal inadequacy". He thought that by combining resources with his wife, he could "achieve the recognition" that might produce a feeling of adequacy.

Erikson died on 12 May 1994 in Harwich, Massachusetts. He is buried in the First Congregational Church Cemetery in Harwich.

Bibliography

Major works

• Childhood and Society (1950)
• Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History (1958)
• Insight and Responsibility (1966)
• Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968)
• Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (1969)
• Life History and the Historical Moment (1975)
• Toys and Reasons: Stages in the Ritualization of Experience (1977)
• Adulthood (edited book, 1978)
• Vital Involvement in Old Age (with J. M. Erikson and H. Kivnick, 1986)
• Erikson, Erik H.; Erikson, Joan M. (1997). The Life Cycle Completed (extended ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company (published 1998). ISBN 978-0-393-34743-2.

Collections

• Identity and the Life Cycle. Selected Papers (1959)
• "A Way of Looking at Things – Selected Papers from 1930 to 1980, Erik H. Erikson" ed. by S. Schlein, W. W. Norton & Co, New York, (1995)

See also

• Erikson Institute

References

Works cited

• Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen (2000). "Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens Through the Twenties". American Psychologist. 55 (5): 469–480. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.462.7685. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.5.469. ISSN 1935-990X. PMID 10842426.
• Burston, Daniel (2007). Erik Erikson and the American Psyche: Ego, Ethics, and Evolution. Lanham, Maryland: Jason Aronson. ISBN 978-0-7657-0495-5.
• Eckenfels, Edward J. (2008). Doctors Serving People: Restoring Humanism to Medicine through Student Community Service. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4315-4.
• Engler, Barbara (2008). Personality Theories: An Introduction (8th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 978-0-547-14834-2.
•  ———  (2014). Personality Theories: An Introduction (9th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-285-08880-8.
• Erikson, Erik H. (1974). Dimensions of a New Identity. Jefferson Lectures in the Humanities. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-00923-1.
• Erikson Bloland, Sue (2005). In the Shadow of Fame: A Memoir by the Daughter of Erik H. Erikson. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-03374-4.
• Fadiman, James; Frager, Robert (2002). Personality and Personal Growth (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-040961-4.
• Friedman, Lawrence Jacob (2000). Identity's Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00437-5.
• Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; Powell, John L. III; Beavers, Jamie; Monte, Emmanuelle (2002). "The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–152. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139. ISSN 1939-1552. S2CID 145668721. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
• Heathcoate, Ann (2010). "Eric Berne's Development of Ego State Theory: Where Did It All Begin and Who Influenced Him?" (PDF). Transactional Analysis Journal. 40 (3–4): 254–260. doi:10.1177/036215371004000310. ISSN 2329-5244. S2CID 51749399. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
• Hoare, Carol Hren (2002). Erikson on Development in Adulthood: New Insights from the Unpublished Papers. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513175-8.
• Osmer, Richard; Bridgers, Lynn (2018) [2015]. "James Fowler". Christian Educators of the 20th Century. La Mirada, California: Biola University. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
• Paranjpe, Anand C. (2005). "Erikson, Erik Homburger". In Shook, John R. (ed.). The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers. Vol. 2. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Continuum. pp. 734–737. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199754663.001.0001. ISBN 978-1-84371-037-0.
• Stevens, Richard (1983). Erik Erikson: An Introduction. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-25812-2.
•  ———  (2008). Erik H. Erikson: Explorer of Identity and the Life Cycle. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-9986-3.
• Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth (1989). Anna Freud. New York: Summit Books. ISBN 9780333455265.

Further reading

• Andersen, D. C. (1993). "Beyond Rumor and Reductionism: A Textual Dialogue with Erik H. Erikson". The Psychohistory Review. 22 (1): 35–68. ISSN 0363-891X. PMID 11623368.
• Bondurant, Joan V.; Fisher, Margaret W.; Sutherland, J. D. (1971). "Gandhi: A Psychoanalytic View". Review of Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence by Erikson, Erik H. The American Historical Review. 76 (4): 1104–1115. doi:10.2307/1849243. ISSN 0002-8762. JSTOR 1849243.
• Brenman-Gibson, Margaret (1997). "The Legacy of Erik Hamburger Erikson". Psychoanalytic Review. 84 (3): 329–335. ISSN 0033-2836. PMID 9279928.
• Capps, Donald; Capps, Walter H.; Bradford, M. Gerald, eds. (1977). Encounter with Erikson: Historical Interpretation and Religious Biography. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press.
• Carney, J. E. (1993). "'Is It Really So Terrible Her?': Karl Menninger's Pursuit of Erik Erikson". The Psychohistory Review. 22 (1): 119–153. ISSN 0363-891X. PMID 11623367.
• Coles, Robert (1970). Erik H. Erikson: The Growth of His Work. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. OCLC 898775065.
• Coles, Robert; Fitzpatrick, J. J. (1976). "The Writings of Erik H. Erikson". The Psychohistory Review. 5 (3): 42–46. ISSN 0363-891X. PMID 11615801.
• Crunden, Robert M. (1973). "Freud, Erikson, and the Historian: A Bibliographical Survey". Canadian Review of American Studies. 4 (1): 48–64. doi:10.3138/CRAS-004-01-04. ISSN 0007-7720. PMID 11634791. S2CID 35564701.
• Douvan, Elizabeth (1997). "Erik Erikson: Critical Times, Critical Theory" (PDF). Child Psychiatry and Human Development. 28 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1023/A:1025188901554. hdl:2027.42/43955. ISSN 1573-3327. PMID 9256525. S2CID 22049620.
• Eagle, Morris (1997). "Contributions of Erik Erikson". Psychoanalytic Review. 84 (3): 337–347. ISSN 0033-2836. PMID 9279929.
• Elms, Alan C. (2008). "Erikson, Erik Homburger". In Koertge, Noretta (ed.). New Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Group. pp. 406–412. ISBN 978-0-684-31322-1.
• Evans, Richard I. (1967). Dialogue with Erik Erikson. Dialogues with notable contributors to personality theory. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. OCLC 4930459.
• Fitzpatrick, J. J. (1976). "Erik H. Erikson and Psychohistory". Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic. 40 (4): 295–314. ISSN 0025-9284. PMID 791417.
• Goethals, George W. (1976). "The Evolution of Sexual and Genital Intimacy: A Comparison of the Views of Erik H. Erikson and Harry Stack Sullivan". The Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis. 4 (4): 529–544. doi:10.1521/jaap.1.1976.4.4.529. ISSN 1546-0371. PMID 799636.
• Hoffman, L. E. (1993). "Erikson on Hitler: The Origins of 'Hitler's Imagery and German Youth'". The Psychohistory Review. 22 (1): 69–86. ISSN 0363-891X. PMID 11623369.
• Masson, J. L. (1974). "India and the Unconscious: Erik Erikson on Gandhi". The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 55 (4): 519–529. ISSN 1745-8315. PMID 4616017.
• Roazen, Paul (1976). Erik H. Erikson: The Power and Limits of a Vision. New York: Free Press.
•  ———  (1993). "Erik H. Erikson as a Teacher". The Psychohistory Review. 22 (1): 101–117. ISSN 0363-891X. PMID 11623366.
• Schnell, R. L. (1980). "Contributions to Psychohistory: IV. Individual Experience in Historiography and Psychoanalysis: Significance of Erik Erikson and Robert Coles". Psychological Reports. 46 (2): 591–612. doi:10.2466/pr0.1980.46.2.591. ISSN 0033-2941. PMID 6992185. S2CID 35340912.
• Strozier, Charles B. (1976). "Disciplined Subjectivity and the Psychohistorian: A Critical Look at the Work of Erik H. Erikson". The Psychohistory Review. 5 (3): 28–31. ISSN 0363-891X. PMID 11615797.
• Wallerstein, Robert S.; Goldberger, Leo, eds. (1998). Ideas and Identities: The Life and Work of Erik Erikson. Madison, Connecticut: International Universities Press. ISBN 978-0-8236-2445-4.
• Weiner, M. B. (1979). "Caring for the Elderly. Psychological Aging: Aspects of Normal Personality and Development in Old Age. Part II. Erik Erikson: Resolutions of Psychosocial Tasks". The Journal of Nursing Care. 12 (5): 27–28. PMID 374748.
• Welchman, Kit (2000). Erik Erikson: His Life, Work, and Significance. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-20157-0.
• Wurgaft, Lewis D. (1976). "Erik Erikson: From Luther to Gandhi". Psychoanalytic Review. 63 (2): 209–233. ISSN 0033-2836. PMID 788015.
• Zock, Hetty (2004). A Psychology of Ultimate Concern: Erik H. Erikson's Contribution to the Psychology of Religion (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-5183-180-1.

External links

• Works by or about Erik Erikson at the Internet Archive