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European Americans

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European Americans are Americans of European ancestry.[3][4] This term includes both people who descend from the first European settlers in the area of the present-day United States and people who descend from more recent European arrivals. Since the 17th century, European Americans have been the largest panethnic group in what is now the United States.

European Americans
Largest (non-Hispanic) white alone or in any combination group by county in the 2020 United States census.
Total population
133 million European-diaspora Americans
41% of total US population (2017)[1][a]
(as opposed to 235.4 million Americans identifying as White in combination with other races and 204.3 million self-identifying as white)[2]
61.6% of the total US population (2020)
Regions with significant populations
Contiguous United States and Alaska
smaller populations in Hawaii and the territories[citation needed]
Languages
Predominantly English, but also other languages of Europe[citation needed]
Religion
Predominantly Christianity (Mainly Protestantism and Roman Catholicism);
Minority religions: Judaism, Mormonism, Islam, Neo-Paganism, Irreligion, Atheism[citation needed]

The Spaniards are thought to have been the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the contiguous United States, with Martín de Argüelles (b. 1566) in St. Augustine, then a part of Spanish Florida,[5][6] and the Russians were the first Europeans to settle in Alaska, establishing Russian America. The first English child born in the Americas was Virginia Dare, born August 18, 1587. She was born in Roanoke Colony, located in present-day North Carolina, which was the first attempt, made during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, to establish a permanent English settlement in North America.

In the 2020 United States census, British Americans (97 million), German Americans (45 million), Irish Americans (39 million), Italian Americans (17 million) and Polish Americans (9 million) were the five largest self-reported European ancestry groups in the United States.[7]

The 2020 census was the first census to allow data collection on subtypes of Europeans. During previous surveys, the number of people with British ancestry was considered to be significantly under-counted, as many people in that demographic tended to identify themselves simply as Americans (20,151,829 or 7.2%).[8][9][10][11] A 2015 genetic study of 148,789 European Americans concluded that British ancestry was the most common European ancestry among white Americans, with this component ranging between 20% and 55% of the total population in all 50 states. [12] The same applies to Americans of Spanish ancestry, as many people in that demographic tend to identify themselves as Hispanic and Latino Americans (58,846,134 or 16.6%), even though they carry a mean of 65.1% European genetic ancestry, mainly from Spain.[13]

An increasing number of people ignored the ancestry question or chose no specific ancestral group such as "American or United States". In the 2000 census this represented over 56.1 million or 19.9% of the United States population, an increase from 26.2 million (10.5%) in 1990 and 38.2 million (16.9%) in 1980 and are specified as "unclassified" and "not reported".[14][15]

Terminology

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Proportion of Non-Hispanic White Americans in each county of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States Census
Number of European Americans from 1800 to 2010
Year Population % of the United States Ref(s)
1800 4,306,446 81.1%
1850 19,553,068 84.3%
1900 66,809,196 87.9%
1950 134,942,028 89.5%
2000 211,460,626 75.1%
2010 223,553,265 72.4%

Use

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In 1995, as part of a review of the Office of Management and Budget's Statistical Policy Directive No. 15 (Race and Ethnic Standards for Federal Statistics and Administrative Reporting), a survey was conducted of census recipients to determine their preferred terminology for the racial/ethnic groups defined in the Directive. For the White group, European American came a distant third, preferred by only 2.35% of panel interviewees, as opposed to White, which was preferred by 61.66%.[16]

The term is sometimes used interchangeably with Caucasian American, White American, and Anglo-American in the United States.[17]

Origin

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In contexts such as medical research, terms such as "white" and "European" have been criticized for vagueness and blurring important distinctions between different groups that happen to fit within the label.[18] Margo Adair suggests that viewing Americans of European descent as a single group contributes to the "wonder-breading" of the United States, eradicating the cultural heritage of individual European ethnicities.[19]

Subgroups

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Racial types of European Americans as published in "The American Museum Journal" between 1900-1918.

There are several subgroupings of European Americans.[20] While these categories may be approximately defined, often due to the imprecise or cultural regionalization of Europe, the subgroups are nevertheless used widely in cultural or ethnic identification.[21] This is particularly the case in diasporic populations, as with European people in the United States generally.[22] In alphabetical order, some of the subgroups are:

History

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Main article: European immigration to the Americas
See also: European colonization of the Americas
Historical immigration estimates[23][24]
Country Immigration
before 1790 		Ancestry 1790
England* 230,000 1,900,000
Ulster Scotch-Irish* 135,000 320,000
Germany[b] 103,000 280,000
Scotland* 48,500 160,000
Ireland 8,000 200,000
Netherlands 6,000 100,000
Wales* 4,000 120,000
France 3,000 80,000
Sweden and Other[c] 500 20,000
*Totals, British 417,500 2,500,000+
  United States[d] 950,000 3,929,214

Before the arrival of Europeans, Native Americans predominantly inhabited the United States. The earliest Europeans to colonize North America were the Spaniards. The first Spanish colonization was in 1565 at St. Augustine, Florida.[25] One of the most significant Spanish explorers was Hernando De Soto, a conquistador who accompanied Francisco Pizzaro during his conquest of the Inca Empire.

Leaving Havana, Cuba, in 1539, De Soto's expedition landed in Florida. It explored the southeastern area of the United States. They reached as far as the Mississippi River in search of riches and fortune. Another Spaniard who explored the United States, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, set out from New Spain in 1540 in search of the mythical Seven Cities of Gold. Coronado's expedition traveled to Kansas and the Grand Canyon but failed to discover gold or treasure. However, Coronado left a gift of horses to the Plains Indians. Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazano and Frenchman Jacques Cartier are other Europeans who explored the United States. The Spaniards viewed the French as threatening their trade route along the Gulf Stream.[26]

Since 1607, some 57 million immigrants from other lands have come to the United States. Approximately 10 million passed through on their way to some other place or returned to their homelands, leaving a net gain of 47 million people.[27]

Shifts in European migration

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Before 1881, the vast majority of immigrants, almost 86% of the total, arrived from Northwestern Europe, principally Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, and Scandinavia, known as "Old Immigration". Between 1881 and 1893, the pattern shifted in the sources of U.S. "New Immigration." Between 1894 and 1914, immigrants from Central, Eastern, and Southern Europe accounted for 69% of the total.[28][29][30] Prior to 1960, the overwhelming majority came from Europe or of European descent from Canada. Immigration from Europe as a proportion of new arrivals has declined since the mid-20th century, with 75.0% of the total foreign-born population born in Europe compared to 12.1% recorded in the 2010 census.[31]

Immigration since 1820

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European immigration to the U.S. 1820–1970[32][33][34][35][36]
Years Arrivals Years Arrivals Years Arrivals
1820–1830 98,816 1901–1910 8,136,016 1981–1990
1831–1840 495,688 1911–1920 4,376,564 1991–2000
1841–1850 1,597,502 1921–1930 2,477,853
1851–1860 2,452,657 1931–1940 348,289
1861–1870 2,064,407 1941–1950 621,704
1871–1880 2,261,904 1951–1960 1,328,293
1881–1890 4,731,607 1961–1970 1,129,670
1891–1900 3,558,793 1971–1980
Arrivals Total 35,679,763
Country of origin 1820–1978[37][38][39]
Country Arrivals % of total Country Arrivals % of total
Germany1 6,978,000 14.3% Norway 856,000 1.8%
Italy 5,294,000 10.9% France 751,000 1.5%
Great Britain 4,898,000 10.01% Greece 655,000 1.3%
Ireland 4,723,000 9.7% Portugal 446,000 0.9%
Austria-Hungary1, 2 4,315,000 8.9% Denmark 364,000 0.7%
Russia1, 2 3,374,000 6.9% Netherlands 359,000 0.7%
Sweden 1,272,000 2.6% Finland 33,000 0.1%
Total 34,318,000
European-born population

The figures below show that of the total population of the specified birthplace in the United States, 11.1% were born overseas.

Population / Proportion
born in Europe in 1850–2016
Year Population % of foreign-born
1850 2,031,867 92.2%
1860 3,807,062 92.1%
1870 4,941,049 88.8%
1880 5,751,823 86.2%
1890 8,030,347 86.9%
1900 8,881,548 86.0%
1910 11,810,115 87.4%
1920 11,916,048 85.7%
1930 11,784,010 83.0%
1960 7,256,311 75.0%
1970 5,740,891 61.7%
1980 5,149,572 39.0%
1990 4,350,403 22.9%
2000 4,915,557 15.8%
2010 4,817,437 12.1%
2016 4,785,267 10.9%
Source:[40][31][41][42]
Birthplace Population
in 2010 		Percent
in 2010 		Population
in 2016 		Percent
in 2016
Totals, European-born 4,817,437 12.0% 4,785,267 10.9%
Northern Europe 923,564 2.3% 950,872 2.2%
United Kingdom 669,794 1.7% 696,896 1.6%
Ireland 124,457 0.3% 125,840 0.3%
Other Northern Europe 129,313 0.3% 128,136 0.3%
Western Europe 961,791 2.4% 939,383 2.1%
Germany 604,616 1.5% 563,985 1.3%
France 147,959 0.4% 175,250 0.4%
Other Western Europe 209,216 0.5% 200,148 0.4%
Southern Europe 779,294 2.0% 760,352 1.7%
Italy 364,972 0.9% 335,763 0.8%
Portugal 189,333 0.5% 176,638 0.4%
Other Southern Europe 224,989 0.6% 247,951 0.5%
Eastern Europe 2,143,055 5.4% 2,122,951 4.9%
Poland 475,503 1.2% 424,928 1.0%
Russia 383,166 1.0% 397,236 0.9%
Other Eastern Europe 1,284,286 3.2% 1,300,787 3.0%
Other Europe (no country specified) 9,733 0.0% 11,709 0.0%
Source: 2010 and 2016[43]

Demographics

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Further information: Category:American people of European descent
 
The New York City Metropolitan Area is home to the largest European population in the United States.[44]

Breakdowns of the European American population into sub-components is a difficult and rather arbitrary exercise. Farley (1991) argues that "because of ethnic intermarriage, the numerous generations that separate respondents from their forebears and the apparent unimportance to many whites of European origin, responses appear quite inconsistent".[45]

Ancestral origins

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See also: Race and ethnicity in the United States § Ancestry
Ethnic origin 1980 / %[46] 1990 / %[47][48] 2000 / %[49] 2020 / %[50][51] change
2000–2020
United States pop. 226,545,805 100.0 248,709,873 100.0 281,421,906 100.0 331,449,281 100.0  7.4%
At least one ancestry
reported 		188,302,438 83.1 224,788,502 90.4 225,310,411 80.1 TBA TBA
Acadian/Cajun — — 668,271 0.3 85,414 0.0 132,624 0.1
Albanian 38,658 0.02 47,710 0.0 113,661 0.0 236,635 0.1
Alsatian 42,390 0.02 16,465 0.0 15,601 0.0 12,056 0.00
American[e] 13,298,761 5.9 12,395,999 5.0 20,625,093 7.3 - -
Austrian 948,558 0.42 864,783 0.3 735,128 0.3 697,425 0.3
Basque 43,140 0.0 47,956 0.0 57,793 0.0 52,559 0.0
Bavarian — — 4,348 0.0 - - - - -
Belarusian 7,381 0.00 4,277 0.0 - - 67,599 0.0
Belgian 360,277 0.16 380,498[f] 0.2 360,642 0.1 384,224 0.2
British — — 1,119,154 0.4 1,085,720 0.4 860,315 0.4
British Islander — — — — — — 43,654 0.0
Bulgarian 42,504 0.02 29,595 0.0 55,489 0.0 102,968 0.0
Carpatho Rusyn — — 7,602 0.0 9,747 0.00
Celtic — — 29,652 0.0 65,638 0.0 30,630 0.0
Cornish — — 3,991 0.0 - - 6,257 0.0
Croatian 252,970 0.11 544,270 0.2 374,241 0.1 448,479 0.2
Cypriot 6,053 0.00 4,897 0.0 7,663 0.0 10,384 0.00
Czech 1,892,456 0.84 1,296,411[g] 0.5 1,262,527 0.4 1,397,780 0.6
Czechoslovakian — — 315,285 0.1 441,403 0.2 - -
Danish 1,518,273 0.67 1,634,669 0.7 1,430,897 0.5 1,314,209 0.6
Dutch 6,304,499 2.78 6,227,089 2.5 4,542,494 1.6 3,649,179 1.6
Eastern European[h] 62,404 0.03 132,332 0.1 - - - -
English 49,598,035 21.89 32,651,788 13.1 24,515,138 8.7 46,550,968 19.8
Estonian 25,994 0.01 26,762 0.0 25,034 0.0 30,054 0.0
European[h] 175,461 0.08 466,718 0.2 1,968,696 0.7 - -
Finnish 615,872 0.27 658,870 0.3 623,573 0.2 684,373 0.3
Flemish — — 14,157 0.0 384,224 0.2
French 12,892,246 5.69 10,320,935 4.1 8,309,908 3.0 7,994,088 3.4
French Canadian 780,488 0.34 2,167,127 0.9 2,349,684 0.8 933,740 0.4
German 49,224,146 21.73 57,947,171[i] 23.3 42,885,162 15.2 44,978,546 19.1
German Russian — — 10,153 0.0 10,535 0.0
Greek 959,856 0.42 1,110,373 0.4 1,153,307 0.4 568,564 0.2
Hungarian 1,776,902 0.78 1,582,302 0.6 1,398,724 0.5 684,373 0.3
Icelandic 32,586 0.01 40,529 0.0 42,716 0.0 55,602 0.0
Irish 40,165,702 17.73 38,735,539[j] 15.6 30,528,492 10.8 38,597,428 16.4
Italian 12,183,692 5.38 14,664,550[k] 5.9 15,723,555 5.6 16,813,235 7.1
Latvian 92,141 0.04 100,331 0.0 87,564 0.0 92,944 0.0
Lithuanian 742,776 0.33 811,865 0.3 659,992 0.2 711,089 0.3
Luxemburger 49,994 0.02 49,061 0.0 45,139 0.0 57,359 0.0
Macedonian — — 20,365 0.0 38,051 0.0 51,401 0.0
Maltese 31,645 0.01 39,600 0.0 40,159 0.0 44,874 0.0
Manx 9,220 0.00 6,317 0.0 6,955 0.0 8,704 0.0
Moravian — — 3,781 0.0 - - - -
Northern Irelander 16,418 0.01 4,009 0.0 3,693 0.0 5,181 0.0
Norwegian 3,453,839 1.52 3,869,395 1.6 4,477,725 1.6 3,836,884 1.6
Pennsylvania German — — 305,841 0.1 255,807 0.1 169,821 0.1
Polish 8,228,037 3.63 9,366,106 3.8 8,977,444 3.2 8,599,601 3.7
Portuguese 1,024,351 0.45 1,153,351 0.5 1,177,112 0.4 1,454,262 0.6
Prussian — — 25,469 0.0 - - - -
Romanian 315,258 0.14 365,544 0.1 367,310 0.1 416,545 0.2
Russian 2,781,432 1.23 2,952,987 1.2 2,652,214 0.9 2,412,131 1.0
Saxon — — 4,519 0.0 — — — —
Scandinavian 475,007 0.21 678,880 0.3 425,099 0.2 1,217,333 0.5
Scots-Irish — — 5,617,773 2.3 4,319,232 1.5 794,478 0.3
Scottish 10,048,816 4.44 5,393,581 2.2 4,890,581 1.7 8,422,613 3.6
Serbian 100,941 0.04 116,795 0.0 140,337 0.0 204,380 0.1
Sicilian — — 50,389 0.0 - - - -
Slavic 172,696 0.08 76,931 0.0 127,137 0.0 180,316 0.1
Slovak 776,806 0.34 1,882,897 0.8 797,764 0.3 691,455 0.3
Slovenian 126,463 0.06 124,437 0.1 176,691 0.1 196,513 0.1
Soviet — — 7,729 0.0 - - - -
Spaniard 94,528 0.04 360,935 0.1 299,948 0.1 978,978 0.4
Spanish 2,686,680 - 2,024,004 0.8 2,187,144 0.8 866,356 0.4
Swedish 4,345,392 1.92 4,680,863 1.9 3,998,310 1.4 3,839,796 1.6
Swiss 981,543 0.43 1,045,495 0.4 911,502 0.3 946,179 0.4
Ukrainian 730,056 0.32 740,723 0.3 892,922 0.3 953,509 0.4
Welsh 1,664,598 0.73 2,033,893 0.8 1,753,794 0.6 1,977,383 0.8
West German — — 3,885 0.0 - - - -
Yugoslav 360,174 0.16 257,994 0.1 328,547 0.1 - -

Culture

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Further information: Culture of the United States
 
American cultural icons, apple pie, baseball, and the American flag. All have European influence primarily from the British.

As the largest component of the American population, the overall American culture deeply reflects the European-influenced culture that predates the United States of America as an independent state. Much of American culture shows influences from the diverse nations of the United Kingdom and Ireland, such as the English, Irish, Cornish, Manx, Scotch-Irish, Scottish and Welsh. Colonial ties to the United Kingdom spread the English language, legal system and other cultural attributes.[4]

Scholar David Hackett Fischer asserts in Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America that the folkways of four groups of people who moved from distinct regions of the United Kingdom to the United States persisted and provide a substantial cultural basis for much of the modern United States.[52] Fischer explains "the origins and stability of a social system which for two centuries has remained stubbornly democratic in its politics, capitalist in its economy, libertarian in its laws and individualist in its society and pluralistic in its culture."[53]

Much of the European-American cultural lineage can be traced back to Western and Northern Europe, which is institutionalized in the government, traditions, and civic education in the United States.[54] Since most later European Americans have assimilated into American culture, many Americans of European ancestry now generally express their personal ethnic ties sporadically and symbolically and do not consider their specific ethnic origins to be essential to their identity; however, European American ethnic expression has been revived since the 1960s.[55] Some European Americans such as Italians, Greeks, Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Irish, and others have maintained high levels of ethnic identity. In the 1960s, the melting pot ideal to some extent gave way to increased interest in cultural pluralism, strengthening affirmations of ethnic identity among various American ethnic groups, European as well as others.[55]

Law

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The American legal system also has its roots in French philosophy with the separation of powers and the federal system[56] along with English law in common law.[57]

Cuisine

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Main article: Cuisine of the United States
See also: Italian-American cuisine and Greek-American cuisine
 
Hamburgers were invented by German immigrants.
  • Apple pie – New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially "American", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey, a bird that although not found in Europe has become linked in tradition and symbolism to the early European immigrants.[58] "As American as apple pie" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.
  • Hamburger – Although the origins of the hamburger, including the country in which it was first served, are subjects of debate, the hamburger first became widely marketed in the United States[59] and has been internationally known for decades as a symbol of American fast food.
  • Buffalo wings – Invented in 1964 at Anchor Bar in Buffalo, New York by Italian-American Teressa Bellissimo. Now popular all over the country, it has become a symbol of American cuisine.[60]
  • Hot dog – Hot dogs were brought to New York by German immigrants.[61]
  • Pizza – Italian immigrants from Naples brought pizza to the United States.[62]
  • Fried chicken – Scottish immigrants brought fried chicken to the Southern United States. Enslaved African Americans began cooking fried chicken based on the recipes from white Scottish slaveholders.[63]

Thanksgiving

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  • Thanksgiving – In the United States, it has become a national secular holiday (official since 1863) with religious origins. The first Thanksgiving was celebrated by British settlers to give thanks to God and the Native Americans for helping the Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony survive the brutal winter.[64] The modern Thanksgiving holiday traces its origins from a 1621 celebration at the Plymouth Plantation, where the Plymouth settlers held a harvest feast with the Native Americans after a successful growing season. William Bradford is credited as the first to proclaim the American cultural event which is generally referred to as the "First Thanksgiving".

Sports

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See also: Origins of baseball
  • Baseball – The earliest recorded game of base-ball involved the family of the Prince of Wales, played indoors in London in November 1748. The Prince is reported as playing "Bass-Ball" again in September 1749 in Walton-on-Thames, Surrey, against Lord Middlesex.[65] English lawyer William Bray recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, Surrey; Bray's diary was verified as authentic in September 2008.[66][67] This early form of the game was apparently brought to North America by English immigrants. The first appearance of the term that exists in print was in "A Little Pretty Pocket-Book" in 1744, where it is called Base-Ball.
  • American football – can be traced to modified early versions of rugby football played in England and Canadian football mixed with and ultimately changed by American innovations which led over time to the finished version of the game from 1876 to now. The basic set of rules were first developed in American universities in the mid-19th century.[68]
  • Golf - Golf originated from Scotland in the 15th century, the first course in Scotland being St Andrews. The first golf course in America was founded by a Scot John Reid in 1888, and was named after the first Scottish golf club Saint Andrew's Golf Club located in Yonkers, New York, from here golf soared as a national hobby, and by the turn of the 20th Century there was more than 1,000 golf courses in North America.[69]

Music

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Another area of cultural influence are American Patriotic songs:

Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom.

Admixture in non-Latino whites

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See also: Native American ancestry

Some European Americans have varying amounts of Native American and Native African ancestry. In a recent study, Gonçalves et al. 2007 reported Native African and Native American mtDna lineages at a frequency of 3.1% (respectively 0.9% and 2.2%) in European Americans, although that frequency may be scattered by region.[74]

DNA analysis on native European Americans by geneticist Mark D. Shriver showed an average of 0.7% Native African admixture and 3.2% Native American admixture.[75] The same author, in another study, claimed that about 30% of all European Americans, approximately 66 million people, have a median of 2.3% of native African admixture.[76] Later, Shriver retracted his statement, saying that actually around 5% of European Americans exhibit some detectable level of native African ancestry.[77]

From the 23andMe database, about 5 to at least 13 percent of self-identified European American Southerners have greater than 1 percent native African ancestry.[78] Southern states with the highest African American populations tended to have the highest percentages of hidden African ancestry.[79] European Americans on average are: "98.6 percent Native European, 0.19 percent Native African and 0.18 percent Native American." Inferred British/Irish ancestry is found in European Americans from all states at mean proportions of above 20%, and represents a majority of ancestry, above 50% mean proportion, in states such as Mississippi, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Scandinavian ancestry in European Americans is highly localized; most states show only trace mean proportions of Scandinavian ancestry, while it comprises a significant proportion, upwards of 10%, of ancestry in European Americans from Minnesota and the Dakotas.[78][79]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ The figure does not include respondents ignoring the ancestry question.
  2. ^ Germany in this time period consisted of a large number of separate countries, the largest of which was Prussia.
  3. ^ The Other category probably contains mostly English ancestry settlers. However, the loss of several states' census records makes closer estimates difficult. The summaries of the 1790 and 1800 censuses from all states surveyed.
  4. ^ Total represents total immigration over the approximately 130-year span of colonial existence of the U.S. colonies as found in the 1790 census. At the time of the American Revolution, the foreign-born population was estimated to be from 300,000 to 400,000.
  5. ^ The category "American" or "United States" was under "ancestry not specified" in the 1980 and 1990 census results. However they are shown separately in the 2000 census comparison brief showing 12,395,999 as American and 643,561 as United States in 1990.
  6. ^ Excludes Flemish.[48]
  7. ^ Excludes Moravian.[48]
  8. ^ a b This category represents a general type response, which may encompass several ancestry groups.[48]
  9. ^ Excludes Bavarian, Prussian, Saxon, and West German.[48]
  10. ^ Excludes Northern Irish and Celtic.[48]
  11. ^ Excludes Sicilian.[48]

References

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  1. ^ "European Immigrants in the United States". Migration Policy Institute. August 2018.
  2. ^ "Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census". United States Census Bureau. August 12, 2021. Retrieved November 5, 2023.
  3. ^ "Euro-American". Merriam Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
  4. ^ a b James B. Minahan (March 14, 2013). "Americans of European descent". Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Encyclopedia. Abc-Clio. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9781610691642.
  5. ^ "A Spanish Expedition Established St. Augustine in Florida". Library of Congress. Retrieved March 27, 2009.
  6. ^ Figueredo, D. H. (2007). Latino Chronology. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780313341540. Retrieved February 4, 2015.
  7. ^ "Census Bureau Releases 2020 Census Population for More Than 200 New Detailed Race and Ethnicity Groups". September 21, 2023. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
  8. ^ Pulera, Dominic J. (October 20, 2004). Sharing the Dream: White Males in a Multicultural America. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-1643-8. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
  9. ^ Farley, Reynolds (1991). "The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us?". Demography. 28 (3): 411–29. doi:10.2307/2061465. JSTOR 2061465. PMID 1936376. S2CID 41503995.
  10. ^ Stanley Lieberson and Lawrence Santi, "The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns", Social Science Research, Vol. 14, No. 1 (1985), pp. 44-6.
  11. ^ Stanley Lieberson and Mary C. Waters, "Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 487, No. 79 (September 1986), pp. 82–86.
  12. ^ Bryc, Katarzyna; Durand, Eric Y.; Macpherson, J. Michael; Reich, David; Mountain, Joanna L. (January 8, 2015). "The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States". American Journal of Human Genetics. 96 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 4289685. PMID 25529636.
  13. ^ Bryc, Katarzyna; Durand, Eric Y.; Macpherson, J. Michael; Reich, David; Mountain, Joanna L. (2015). "The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 96 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 4289685. PMID 25529636.
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