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List of heads of state of Afghanistan

(Redirected from Head of state of Afghanistan)
"Emir of Afghanistan" and "Leader of Afghanistan" redirect here. For the leader of the Islamic Emirate, see Supreme Leader of Afghanistan.

This article lists the heads of state of Afghanistan since the foundation of the first modern Afghan state, the Hotak Empire, in 1709.

History

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The Hotak Empire was formed after a successful uprising led by Mirwais Hotak and other Afghan tribal chiefs from the Kandahar region against Mughal and Safavid Persian rule.[1][2][3]

After a long series of wars, the Hotak Empire was eventually replaced by the Durrani Afghan Empire, founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747.[4][5]

After the collapse of the Durrani Empire in 1823, the Barakzai dynasty founded the Emirate of Kabul, later known as the Emirate of Afghanistan. The Durrani dynasty regained power in 1839, during the First Anglo-Afghan War, when former ruler Shah Shujah Durrani seized the throne under the British auspices. Shah Shujah was assassinated in 1842, following the British retreat. Afterwards the Barakzai dynasty regained power, eventually transformed the Emirate into the Kingdom of Afghanistan in 1926, and ruled the country (with an interruption in 1929) until the last king, Mohammad Zahir Shah, was deposed in the 1973 coup d'état, led by his first cousin Mohammad Daoud Khan. Despite being part of the Barakzai dynasty, Daoud Khan departed from tradition and did not proclaim himself Shah, instead abolished the monarchy and established the Republic of Afghanistan, with himself as President.[6][7] The Republic lasted until the PDPA–led Saur Revolution in 1978.[8]

Since 1978, Afghanistan has been in a state of continuous internal conflict and foreign interventions.[9][10]

President Hamid Karzai became the first ever democratically elected head of state of Afghanistan on 7 December 2004. His successor, Ashraf Ghani, was in power from 29 September 2014 to 15 August 2021, when he fled the country as Kabul fell to the Taliban following its 2021 offensive.[11]

Upon its recapture of Kabul, the Taliban reinstated the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, and its supreme leader since 2016, Islamic scholar Hibatullah Akhundzada, de facto succeeded Ghani as head of state.[12]

List of heads of state

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(Dates in italics indicate de facto continuation of office)

Monarchs

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Monarch of Afghanistan
  • د افغانستان پاچا (Pashto)
  • پادشاه افغانستان (Dari)
 
Royal Standard
(1931–1973)
 
Last to reign:
Mohammad Zahir Shah
8 November 1933 – 17 July 1973
Details
StyleHis Majesty
First monarchMirwais Hotak (Emir)
Last monarchMohammad Zahir Shah (King)
Formation1709
Abolition17 July 1973
ResidenceKabul:
AppointerHereditary
Pretender(s)Prince Muhammad Zahir Khan

Hotak Empire (1709–1738)

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Mirwais Hotak
  • Mirwais the Grandfather
1673–171517091715Established the Hotak dynasty in Kandahar.Hotak 
Abdul Aziz HotakDied 171717151717Brother of Mirwais HotakHotak 
Mahmud Hotak1697 – 22 April 1725171722 April 1725Son of Mirwais HotakHotak 
Ashraf HotakDied 173022 April 17251730Nephew of Mirwais HotakHotak 
Hussain HotakDied 1738173024 March 1738
(deposed)		Son of Mirwais Hotak
Deposed by Nader Shah in Siege of Kandahar		Hotak 

Durrani Empire (1747–1823)

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Ahmad Shah Durrani
  • the Father of the Nation
1720/1722 – 4 June 1772June 17474 June 1772Established the Durrani dynasty and the Durrani Empire; Considered founder of modern AfghanistanDurrani 
Timur Shah DurraniDecember 1746 – 20 May 1793November 177220 May 1793Son of Ahmad Shah Durrani
Preserved the Durrani Empire following the death of his father after fighting off civil war in 1772, and multiple rebellions		Durrani 
Zaman Shah Durrani1770–184420 May 179325 July 1801
(deposed)		Son of Timur Shah Durrani
Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed		Durrani 
Mahmud Shah Durrani
(1st reign)
  • Shah Mahmud
1769 – 18 April 182925 July 180113 July 1803
(deposed)		Son of Timur Shah Durrani
Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed		Durrani 
Shah Shujah Durrani
(1st reign)
  • Inayat-i-llahi, Shuja ul-Mulk, Muhammad Bahadur
4 November 1785 – 5 April 184213 July 18033 May 1809
(deposed)		Son of Timur Shah Durrani
Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed, and making multiple attempts to reclaim his throne		Durrani 
Mahmud Shah Durrani
(2nd reign)
  • Shah Mahmud
1769 – 18 April 18293 May 18091818
(deposed)		Son of Timur Shah Durrani
Exiled to Herat following his deposition during his second reign		Durrani 
Ali Shah DurraniDied 1818/181918181819
(deposed)		Son of Timur Shah DurraniDurrani 
Ayub Shah DurraniDied 1 October 183718191823
(deposed)		Son of Timur Shah DurraniDurrani 

Emirate of Kabul / Emirate of Afghanistan (1823–1926)

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Sultan Mohammad Khan
  • Mohammad Khan Telai
1792–183418231826
(deposed)		First ruler of the Barakzai dynasty; Son of Sardar Payendah Khan, brother of Dost Mohammad KhanBarakzai 
Dost Mohammad Khan
(1st reign)
  • Amir al-Mu'minin, Amir-i Kabir
23 December 1792 – 9 June 1863Summer 18266 August 1839
(deposed)		Son of Sardar Payendah Khan
Forged campaigns to re-unite Afghanistan which was divided due to the civil wars between the sons of Timur Shah Durrani. Reign disputed from 1839–1842 by Shah Shujah Durrani in the First Anglo-Afghan War		Barakzai 
Shah Shujah Durrani
(2nd reign)
  • Inayat-i-llahi, Shuja ul-Mulk, Muhammad Bahadur
4 November 1785 – 5 April 18427 August 18395 April 1842Son of Timur Shah Durrani
Returned to the throne with the help of the British in the First Anglo-Afghan War, murdered in the aftermath of the 1842 retreat from Kabul		Durrani 
Akbar Khan
  • Amīr Akbar Khān, Mohammad Akbar Khān
1816–1847May 18421843Son of Dost Mohammad KhanBarakzai 
Dost Mohammad Khan
(2nd reign)
  • Amir al-Mu'minin, Amir-i Kabir
23 December 1792 – 9 June 186318439 June 1863Son of Sardar Payendah Khan
Returned to the throne after the British and Shah Shuja were defeated in the First Anglo-Afghan War. Coined the term "Afghanistan" after an alliance with the British. Went on to defeat the remaining powers inside Afghanistan[note 1], reunifying the country after a brutal civil war lasting 70 years from 1793–1863 by the time of his death		Barakzai 
Sher Ali Khan
(1st reign)		1825 – 21 February 18799 June 1863May 1866
(deposed)		Son of Dost Mohammad KhanBarakzai 
Mohammad Afzal Khan1815 – 7 October 1867May 18667 October 1867Son of Dost Mohammad KhanBarakzai 
Mohammad Azam Khan1820–18707 October 186721 August 1868Son of Dost Mohammad KhanBarakzai 
Sher Ali Khan
(2nd reign)		1825 – 21 February 18799 September 186821 February 1879Son of Dost Mohammad KhanBarakzai 
Mohammad Yaqub Khan1849 – 15 November 192321 February 187912 October 1879
(deposed)		Son of Sher Ali Khan
Deposed during the Second Anglo-Afghan War		Barakzai 
Ayub Khan
1857 – 7 April 191412 October 187931 May 1880
(deposed)		Son of Sher Ali Khan
Defeated in the Battle of Kandahar and exiled at the end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War		Barakzai 
Abdur Rahman Khan
  • the Iron Amir
1840/44 – 1 October 190131 May 18801 October 1901Son of Mohammad Afzal KhanBarakzai 
Habibullah Khan3 June 1872 – 20 February 19191 October 190120 February 1919Son of Abdur Rahman KhanBarakzai 
Nasrullah Khan1874–192020 February 191928 February 1919
(deposed)		Son of Abdur Rahman KhanBarakzai 
Amanullah Khan1 June 1892 – 25 April 196028 February 19199 June 1926Son of Habibullah KhanBarakzai 

Kingdom of Afghanistan (1926–1929)

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Amanullah Khan1 June 1892 – 25 April 19609 June 192614 January 1929
(abdicated)		Son of Habibullah KhanBarakzai 
Inayatullah Khan20 October 1888 – 12 August 194614 January 192917 January 1929
(deposed)		Son of Habibullah KhanBarakzai 

Saqqawist Emirate and the 1928–1929 civil war

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Habibullāh Kalakāni
  • Bacha-ye Saqao
19 January 1891 – 3 November 192917 January 1929 [note 2]13 October 1929Styled as king and emir [note 3]; contested the throne during the 1928–29 civil war;[18] deposed and executed[19]Non-dynastic 
Ali Ahmad Khan1883 – 11 July 192917 January 19299 February 1929Grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan (maternal)
Styled as King; rose in opposition to Kalakāni during the 1928–29 civil war; captured and executed		Barakzai 
Amanullah Khan1 June 1892 – 25 April 1960March 192923 May 1929Son of Habibullah Khan
Former King; returned to Afghanistan to contest the throne during the 1928–29 civil war; eventually retreated back into British India;[20] See also Amanullah loyalism		Barakzai 

Kingdom of Afghanistan (restored; 1929–1973)

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Mohammad Nadir Shah9 April 1883 – 8 November 193315 October 1929[21]8 November 1933Great-nephew of Dost Mohammed Khan
Assassinated by Abdul Khaliq Hazara[22]		Barakzai 
Mohammad Zahir Shah
  • the Father of the Nation
    (from 2004) [note 4]
15 October 1914 – 23 July 20078 November 193317 July 1973
(deposed)		Son of Mohammad Nadir Shah
Deposed by first cousin Mohammad Daoud Khan in the 1973 coup d'état[6]		Barakzai 

Local monarchs

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Some rulers tried to take advantage of internal conflicts in Afghanistan to claim the throne. However, their rule was limited only to certain areas.

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Jehandad KhanDied 1914May 1912May 1912
(deposed)		Styled as Emir; ruled only in Khost during the 1912 rebellionNon-dynastic 
Abd-al Karim1897 – 18 February 1927July 192430 January 1925
(deposed)		Son of Mohammad Yaqub Khan
Styled as Emir; rule limited to the Southern Province during the 1924–1925 rebellion		Barakzai 
Salemaic. 1944c. 1946
(deposed)		Styled as King; rule limited to the Eastern Province during the 1944–47 tribal revoltsNon-dynastic 

Non-monarchs

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Name Portrait Lifespan Term of office Political affiliation
Took office Left office Time in office
Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)
Mohammad Daoud Khan   1909–1978 17 July 1973 28 April 1978 4 years, 285 days Independent
(until 1974)
National Revolutionary Party
President; Member of the Barakzai dynasty (first cousin of Mohammed Zahir Shah); Assassinated with most of his family during the Saur Revolution;[23] Supposedly killed for refusing to surrender to the new authorities.[24][8][25]
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1992)
Colonel
Abdul Qadir 		  1944–2014 28 April 1978 30 April 1978 2 days People's Democratic Party
(Khalq faction)
Chairman of the Presidium of the Military Revolutionary Council.
Nur Muhammad Taraki   1917–1979 30 April 1978 14 September 1979 1 year, 137 days People's Democratic Party
(Khalq faction)
Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Assassinated by orders of Hafizullah Amin.
Hafizullah Amin   1929–1979 14 September 1979 27 December 1979 104 days People's Democratic Party
(Khalq faction)
Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Assassinated by Soviet special forces during the Operation Storm-333.[26]
Babrak Karmal   1929–1996 27 December 1979 24 November 1986 6 years, 332 days People's Democratic Party
(Parcham faction)
Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Dismissed.
Haji Mohammad Chamkani   1947–2012 24 November 1986 30 September 1987 310 days Independent
Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Appointed as part of the National Reconciliation process.
Mohammad Najibullah   1947–1996 30 September 1987 16 April 1992 4 years, 199 days People's Democratic Party
(Parcham faction)
(until 1990)
Homeland Party
President (Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council until 30 November 1987); Resigned.
Abdul Rahim Hatif   1926–2013 16 April 1992 28 April 1992 12 days Homeland Party
Acting President; Deposed.
Islamic State of Afghanistan (1992–2002)
Sibghatullah Mojaddedi   1926–2019 28 April 1992 28 June 1992 61 days National Liberation Front of Afghanistan
Acting President; Resigned.
Burhanuddin Rabbani   1940–2011 28 June 1992 22 December 2001 9 years, 177 days Jamiat-e Islami
President; Fled Kabul following its fall to the Taliban on 27 September 1996;[27] Continued to serve as president in areas controlled by the Northern Alliance during the 1996–2001 Civil War until being fully reinstated following the recapture of Kabul on 13 November 2001; Between 1996 and 2001, the Islamic State remained the internationally recognized government, despite only controlling about 10% of Afghan territory.
Hamid Karzai   born 1957 22 December 2001 13 July 2002 203 days Independent
Chairman of the Afghan Interim Administration; Appointed by the 2001 Bonn Conference.[28]
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)
Mullah
Mohammed Omar 		  between 1953 and 1966[29] – 2013 27 September 1996 13 November 2001 5 years, 47 days Taliban
Supreme Leader; Deposed during the fall of Kabul,[30] and went into hiding following the fall of Kandahar on 7 December 2001;[31][32] Continued to claim the position in rebellion during the Taliban insurgency until his death on 23 April 2013; Between 1996 and 2001, the Islamic Emirate never attained widespread international recognition, despite controlling about 90% of Afghan territory.
Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (2002–2004)
Hamid Karzai   born 1957 13 July 2002 7 December 2004 2 years, 147 days Independent
Transitional President; Appointed by the 2002 loya jirga.
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004–2021)
Hamid Karzai   born 1957 7 December 2004 29 September 2014 9 years, 296 days Independent
President; First democratically elected head of state; Elected in 2004 and re-elected in 2009.
Ashraf Ghani   born 1949 29 September 2014 15 August 2021 6 years, 320 days Independent
President; First peaceful transition of power; Elected in 2014 and re-elected in 2019; Deposed during the fall of Kabul.
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (2021–present)
Mullah
Mawlawi
Hibatullah Akhundzada 		  Birth date not known 15 August 2021[12] Incumbent 3 years, 82 days Taliban
Supreme Leader; Claimed the position in rebellion during the Taliban insurgency from 25 May 2016 until the recapture of Kabul. The Islamic Emirate is currently not internationally recognized, despite controlling all Afghan territory.[33]

Family tree of monarchs

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Family tree of Afghan monarchs
Salim Khan
Hotak
dynasty
Mirwais
Khan Hotak
(1)
r. 1709–1715		Abdul Aziz
Hotak
(2)
r. 1715–1717
Mahmud
Hotak
(3)
r. 1717–1725		Hussain
Hotak
(5)
r. 1725–1738		Ashraf
Hotak
(4)
r. 1725–1729
Durrani
dynasty
Ahmad Shah
Durrani
(1)
r. 1747–1772		Sardar
Payinda
Mohammad
Khan
Barakzai
dynasty
Timur Shah
Durrani
(2)
r. 1772–1793		Mohammad
Khan
(1)
r. 1823–1826		Dost
Mohammad
Khan
(2)
r. 1826–1839,
1843–1863
Zaman Shah
Durrani
(3)
r. 1793–1801		Mahmud Shah
Durrani
(4)
r. 1801–1803,
1809–1818		Shah Shujah
Durrani
(5)
r. 1803–1809,
1839–1842		Ali Shah
Durrani
(6)
r. 1818–1819		Ayub Shah
Durrani
(7)
r. 1819–1823		Mohammad
Afzal Khan
(5)
r. 1866–1867		Akbar Khan
(3)
r. 1842–1843		Mohammad
Azam Khan
(6)
r. 1867–1868		Sher Ali
Khan
(4)
r. 1863-1866,
1868–1879		Sahira
Begum		Loinab
Khush
Dil Khan
Ali Ahmad
Mirza		Sardar
Mohammad
Yahya Khan		Hamdan
Sultana
Begum		Abdur
Rahman
Khan
(9)
r. 1880–1901		Mohammad
Yaqub Khan
(7)
r. 1879		Mohammad
Ayub Khan
(8)
r. 1879–1880
Sharaf
Sultana
Hukumat
Begum		Sardar
Mohammad
Yusuf Khan		Sardar
Mohammad
Asif Khan		Habibullah
Khan
(10)
r. 1901–1919		Nasrullah
Khan
(11)
r. 1919
Mohammad
Nadir Shah
(15)
r. 1929–1933		Mah Parwar
Begum		Inayatullah
Khan
(13)
r. 1929		Amanullah
Khan
(12)
r. 1919–1929,
1929		Ali Ahmad
Khan
(14)
r. 1929
Mohammad
Zahir Shah
(16)
r. 1933–1973

Timeline from 1880

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Hibatullah AkhundzadaAshraf GhaniHamid KarzaiMullah OmarBurhanuddin RabbaniSibghatullah MojaddediMohammad NajibullahHaji Mohammad ChamkaniBabrak KarmalHafizullah AminNur Muhammad TarakiAbdul Qadir (Afghan communist)Mohammad Daoud KhanSalemaiMohammad Zahir ShahMohammad Nadir ShahHabibullāh KalakāniInayatullah KhanAmanullah KhanNasrullah KhanHabibullah KhanAbdur Rahman Khan

Standards of heads of state

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Most notably Herat (see Herat campaign of 1862–1863) and Qandahar (see Conquest of Kandahar).
  2. ^ Most sources list 17 January 1929, the day that Kalakāni captured Kabul, as the date that his reign began.[13][14] However, he had been formally claiming the title of emir since 14 December 1928.[15]
  3. ^ Kalakāni referred to himself as both "king"[16] and "emir".[17]
  4. ^ "The late King was always fondly referred to by all Afghans, cutting across ethnic boundaries, as "Baba-e-Millat" or 'Father of the Nation', a position given to him in the country's Constitution promulgated in January 2004, about two years after the collapse of Taliban rule. The title of the 'Father of the Nation' dissolves with his death." "Last King of Afghanistan dies at 92". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007.

References

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  1. ^ "An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)". Edward Granville Browne. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 29. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
  2. ^ Otfinoski, Steven (2004). Afghanistan. Infobase Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 0-8160-5056-2. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  3. ^ Malleson, George Bruce (1878). History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878. London: Elibron.com. p. 227. ISBN 1-4021-7278-8. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  4. ^ "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 26 July 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2010. Ahmad Shah DURRANI unified the Pashtun tribes and founded Afghanistan in 1747.
  5. ^ "Last Afghan empire". Louis Dupree, Nancy Hatch Dupree and others. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Version. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
  6. ^ a b "Afghan King Overthrown; A Republic Is Proclaimed". The New York Times. 18 July 1973. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
  7. ^ Barfield, Thomas (25 March 2012). Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History (Princeton Studies in Muslim Politics). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691154411.
  8. ^ a b William Borders (28 April 1978). "Coup Is Reported in Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  9. ^ "A Look At Afghanistan's 40 Years Of Crisis — From The Soviet War To Taliban Recapture". NPR. 31 August 2021.
  10. ^ "Instability in Afghanistan". Global Conflict Tracker. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
  11. ^ "President Ashraf Ghani flees Afghanistan as Taliban enters Kabul". South China Morning Post. Reuters. 15 August 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
  12. ^ a b
  13. ^ Qassem, Dr Ahmad Shayeq (28 March 2013). Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 175. ISBN 9781409499428.
  14. ^ Wazir, Azmatullah Khan (2002). The immediate solution of Afghan crisis. A.K. Wazir. p. 8.
  15. ^ Muḥammad, Fayz̤; McChesney, R. D. (1999). Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 37. ISBN 9781558761544.
  16. ^ "ExecutedToday.com » 1929: Habibullah Kalakani, Tajik bandit-king". 1 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
  17. ^ Muḥammad, Fayz̤; Hazārah, Fayz̤ Muḥammad Kātib; Muḥammad, Faiḍ (1999). Kabul Under Siege: Fayz Muhammad's Account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-55876-155-1.
  18. ^ "Rebel Becomes King in Afghanistan". The New York Times. 18 January 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  19. ^ "Afghan Usurper Yields to New King". The New York Times. 24 October 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  20. ^ "Amanullah Hungry in Flight to India". The New York Times. 26 May 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  21. ^ "Nadir Khan is Elected Amir of Afghanistan". The New York Times. 18 October 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  22. ^ "King of Afghanistan Is Slain at Kabul; Stable Boy Won Throne by Military Skill". The New York Times. 9 November 1933. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  23. ^ "There was, therefore, little to hinder the assault mounted by the rebel 4th Armored Brigade, led by Major Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, who had also been prominent in Daoud's own coup five years before. Watanjar first secured the airport, where the other coup leader, Colonel Abdul Qadir, left by helicopter for the Bagram air base. There he took charge and organized air strikes on the presidential palace, where Daoud and the presidential guard were conducting a desperate defense. Fighting continued the whole day and into the night, when the defenders were finally overwhelmed. Daoud and almost all of his family members, including women and children, died in the fighting. Altogether there were possibly as many as two thousand fatalities, both military and civilian." p. 88 of Ewans, Martin (2002) Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics HarperCollins, New York, Page 88 ISBN 0-06-050507-9
  24. ^ "1978: Afghan coup rebels claim victory". 29 April 1978 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
  25. ^ Ghaus, Abdul Samad (1988). The fall of Afghanistan: an insider's account. Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's Intern. Defense Publ. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-08-034701-1.
  26. ^ "How Soviet troops stormed Kabul palace". BBC. 27 December 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  27. ^ "Afghan Fundamentalists Sweep Into Kabul". The New York Times. 27 September 1996. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  28. ^ "Bonn Agreement" (PDF). United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. 5 December 2001. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  29. ^ "Security Council 1988 Committee Amends 105 Entries on Its Sanctions List | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
  30. ^ David S. Rohde with Dexter Filkins (13 November 2001). "Taliban Troops Abandon Capital Without a Fight". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  31. ^ David S. Rohde with Norimitsu Onishi (8 December 2001). "TALIBAN ABANDON LAST STRONGHOLD; OMAR IS NOT FOUND". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
  32. ^ Dam, Bette (2019). "The Secret Life of Mullah Omar" (PDF). Zomia Center. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
  33. ^ Trofimov, Yaroslav (13 September 2021). "As Taliban Seek International Acceptance, Countries Seek to Engage—but Stop Short of Recognition". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
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