Kilmeri, or bo apulyo is a Papuan language of Papua New Guinea near the border with Indonesian Papua. It is not being learned by children.
| Kilmeri | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Papua New Guinea |
| Region | Sandaun Province |
| Ethnicity | 2,800 (2004)[1] |
Native speakers | 2,000 (2004)[1] |
Border
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | kih |
| Glottolog | kilm1241 |
| ELP | Kilmeri |
| Coordinates: 2°54′59″S 141°17′53″E / 2.916313°S 141.298028°E | |
Kilmeri is spoken around Ossima ward (2°54′59″S 141°17′53″E / 2.916313°S 141.298028°E) in Bewani/Wutung Onei Rural LLG, Sandaun Province.[1][2]
Speakers of Kilmeri refer to their own language as bo apulyo, meaning sound in the middle.[3]
Dialects
edit- Western Kilmeri dialect (spoken in western villages)
- Elau
- Osol
- Kilipau
- Kiliwes
- Isi
- I
- Isi II
- Sosi
- Ilup
- Eastern Kilmeri dialect (spoken in eastern villages and hamlets)
- Ossima
- Isi Daru
- Akos
- Awol
- Airu
- Asue
- Omoi
- Omula
The two major dialect groupings have an estimated cognate percentage of 82% based on lexicostatistics.[4]
Phonology
editKilmeri distinguishes 18 consonants, 12 of which are phonemic.[3]
| Bilabial | Labiodental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | voiced prenasalised | b | d | ⌈g⌉ | |||
| Voiceless | p | k | ⌈ʔ⌉ | ||||
| Labialized | (pʷ̜) | ||||||
| Nasal | m | n | |||||
| Rhotic | ᵐʙ | r | |||||
| Fricative | (β / ɸ) | ⌈f⌉ | s | ||||
| Lateral | l | ||||||
| Approximant | ʋ | j | |||||
The sounds in parentheses are possible allophones of the bilabial trill. [β] can be intervocalical, [ɸ] can be the final sound, and [pʷ̜] can be syllable-initial. The sounds in half brackets occur extremely rarely and can likely be attributed to loan words. [3]
The exceedingly rare bilabial trill /ʙ/ is found in the areal-related Kwomtari and Sko languages, but not in other Border languages.[6] It likely developed from a prenasalized bilabial stop followed by a high back rounded vowel, hence why [mbu] occurs only in ten words.
Kilmeri has eight vowels, all of which are always short. [3]
| (Near) Front | Central | (Near) Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | u | |
| Near-high | ɪ | ʊ | |
| Mid | ɛ | ɔ | |
| (Near) -low | æ | a |
The near-high and near-low vowels are especially rare.[3] Thus, Kilmeri was believed to have seven vowels[6] until a small selection of words, such as /bi/ (pig) and /bI/ (hole) show a clear distinction between /i/ and /I/.[3]
The main syllable structure is CV with two preferred syllables. [3]
Orthography
editThe phonetic inventory easily translates into Latin letters. The near-low vowel uses ae and the near-high vowels use diacritics. Literate Kilmeri speakers much preferred the symbol p for the bilabial trill, but pp was selected to indicate two different phonemes.[3]
| Phoneme | Grapheme |
|---|---|
| /b/ | b |
| /d/ | d |
| /k/ | k |
| /l/ | l |
| /m/ | m |
| /n/ | n |
| /p/ | p |
| /ʙ/ | pp |
| /r/ | r |
| /s/ | s |
| /ʋ/ | w |
| /j/ | y |
| /a/ | a |
| /æ/ | ae |
| /ɛ/ | e |
| /i/ | i |
| /I/ | î |
| /ɔ/ | o |
| /u/ | u |
| /ʊ/ | û |
Pronouns
editKilmeri has eleven personal pronouns without gender distinction. [6]
| Singular | Dual | Plural | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st INCL | ko | dedukoyo | nuko |
| 1st EXCL | koyo | uke | |
| 2nd | de | deyo | ine |
| 3rd | ki ~ ke | kiyo | iki |
The dual forms end with the locative suffix -yo and is derived from the singular. The inclusive dual is often substituted with the inclusive plural, especially in narrative stories.[3]
Verbs
editKilmeri verb forms can express complex modality. Examples:[6]
de-le PROB-go ‘will probably go’ lam < le-m go-POT ‘might go’ lou < le-ou go-FRUST ‘go in vain’ lap < le-p go-IMP ‘go!’ klam < k-le-m NEG.IMP-go-NEG.IMP ‘don’t go!’ loipap < le-ipe-p go-first-IMP ‘go first, and then…’
Circumfixes can also be applied to verbs in Kilmeri.
Number agreement in Kilmeri is absolutive rather than accusative.[6]
In Kilmeri, intransitive verbs, as well as the two transitive verbs ‘eat’ and ‘throw down to’, agree with subjects in number. This pattern is also present in Amanab. These verbs are:[6]
gloss singular plural ‘eat’ ni ile ‘throw down to’ pakʊne pakʊpi ‘come’ pule pulupi ‘die’ sui supuli ‘go’ le mole ‘sit’ nake mape ‘sleep’ nui sapi ‘speak’ mui molive
However, number marking for transitive verbs, except for ‘eat’ and ‘throw down to’, refers to the number of the object, rather than the subject.[6]
gloss singular plural ‘carry’ wili moli ‘carry hanging’ lali laluli ‘cook’ si sepi ‘cut’ suke sukeli ‘dig’ rari rararpi ‘erect’ newe newaupi ‘fetch someone’ lakive leki ‘fill’ norive nororpi ‘harvest’ lapiye lapapi ‘mark’ lopi lopapi ‘sharpen’ merive mererpi ‘take out’ pulive puloli ‘tear’ pike pikeki
References
edit- ^ a b c Kilmeri at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ United Nations in Papua New Guinea (2018). "Papua New Guinea Village Coordinates Lookup". Humanitarian Data Exchange. 1.31.9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Gerstner-Link, Claudia (2018-09-24). A Grammar of Kilmeri. De Gruyter Mouton. doi:10.1515/9781501506765. ISBN 978-1-5015-0676-5.
- ^ a b Brown, Robert. 1981. A sociolinguistic survey of Pagi and Kilmeri. Workpapers in Papua New Guinea Languages 29. Ukarumpa: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- ^ Survey archive on Summer Institute of Linguistics International
- ^ a b c d e f g Foley, William A. (2018). "The Languages of the Sepik-Ramu Basin and Environs". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 197–432. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
