The Lencan languages are a small linguistic family from Central America, whose speakers before the Spanish conquest spread throughout El Salvador and Honduras. But by the beginning of the 20th century, only two languages of the family survived, Salvadoran Lenca or Potón and Honduran Lenca, which were described and studied academically; Of them, only Salvadoran Lenca still has current speakers, despite the fact that indigenous people belonging to the Lenca ethnic group exceed between 37,000 and 100,000 people.[1][2][3]
| Lencan | |
|---|---|
| Ethnicity | Lenca people |
| Geographic distribution | El Salvador and Honduras |
| Linguistic classification | Macro-Chibchan ?
|
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | len |
| Glottolog | lenc1239 |
Languages
editThere are two attested Lencan languages:
- Salvadoran Lencan was spoken in Chilanga and Guatajigua.[1] Lencans had arrived in El Salvador about 2,295 years B.P. and founded the site of Quelepa. One speaker remains.[1][4]
- Honduran Lencan was spoken with minor dialect differences in Intibucá, Opatoro, Guajiquiro, Similatón (modern Cabañas), and Santa Elena. Some phrases survive; it is not known if the entire language still exists.
The languages are not closely related; Swadesh (1967) estimated 3,000 years since separation. Arguedas Cortés (1987) reconstructs Proto-Lencan with 12 consonants (including ejectives) and 5 vowels.
External relationships
editThe external relationships of the Lencan languages are disputed. Inclusion within Macro-Chibchan has often been proposed; Campbell (1987) reported that he found no solid evidence for such a connection, but Constenla-Umaña (2005) proposed regular correspondence between Lencan, Misumalpan, and Chibchan.
Campbell (2012) acknowledges that these claims of connection between Lencan, Misumalpan, and Chibchan have not yet been proved systematically, but he notes that Constenla-Umaña (2005) "presented evidence to support a relationship with two neighboring families [of languages]: Misumalpan and Lencan, which constitute the Lenmichí Micro-Phylum. According to Constenla-Umaña's study (2005), the Lenmichi Micro-Phylum first split into Proto-Chibchan and Proto-Misulencan, the common intermediate ancestor of the Lencan and the Misumalpan languages. This would have happened around 9,726 years before the present or 7,720 B.C. (the average of the time depths between the Chibchan languages and the Misulencan languages)...The respective subancestors of the Lencan and the Misumalpan languages would have separated around 7,705 before the present (5,069 B.C.), and Paya and the other intermediate ancestors of all the other Chibchan languages would have separated around 6,682 (4,676 B.C.)."[5][6]
Another proposal by Lehmann (1920:727) links Lencan with the Xincan language family, though Campbell (1997:167) rejects most of Lehmann's twelve lexical comparisons as invalid. An automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013)[7] also found lexical similarities between Lencan and Xincan. However, since the analysis was automatically generated, the grouping could be either due to mutual lexical borrowing or genetic inheritance.
History
editThe Proto-Lencan homeland was most likely in central Honduras (Campbell 1997:167).
At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the use of Honduran Lenca and Salvadoran Lenca began to decline. In the 1950s, Honduran Lenca was already in a critical state of extinction, since the only place where there were speakers was Guajiquiro. In 1982 a Honduran Lenca speaker was found in Guajiquiro.[8][9][10][11] In the 1970s, died in Chilanga, Anselmo Hernández, the last competent Salvadoran Lenca speaker. In the 1990s, some semi-speakers of Honduran Lenca were found. It was assumed that the languages were most likely extinct, and it was believed that it was very unlikely that there were any elders with any knowledge or memory of both languages, and it was also believed that it was very unlikely that fluent speakers could be found. The Honduran Lenca is currently believed to be extinct.[9][10]
In the case of Salvadoran Lenca, in the end of the nineties Consuelo Roque, linguist from the University of El Salvador (UES), found Mario Salvador Hernández from Guatajiagua (a semi-speaker who is considered the last native speaker by the salvadoran newspapers, and specifically of the variant of that population, and who learned the language from his grandmother) and both would write a learning primer titled in spanish: Poton piau, nuestra lengua Potón.[12] However, linguist Alan R. King, in his 2016 book titled in spanish Conozcamos el Lenca, una lengua de El Salvador (where he also used the Potón Piau primer as a reference), points out that (translating in english: "Today no one knows how to speak Lenca, although certain individuals have memories of—or have learned—some fragments of that now lost language. This type of partial knowledge is not even remotely close, in any case that we have been able to verify, to a real mastery of the historical language, whose disappearance dates back to the mid-twentieth century...".[13]
While in the case of Honduran Lenca, the linguist American Alan R. King, in the company of his colleague James Morrow, in 2017 they published the book Kotik molka niwamal (which from Honduran Lenca translated into Spanish means Let's learn to speak Lenca), which is a compilation of words in Lenca among the communities still existing that opens the possibility of recovering a significant part of the language. Currently in El Salvador there are rehabilitation projects for Salvadoran Lenca to prevent its extinction.[14]
A 2002 novel by Roberto Castillo, La guerra mortal de los sentidos, chronicles the adventures of the "Searcher for the Lenca Language."[15]
Proto-language
edit| Proto-Lencan | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Lencan languages |
Proto-Lenca reconstructions by Arguedas (1988):[16]
| No. | Spanish gloss (original) |
English gloss (translated) |
Proto-Lenca |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | abrir | open (verb) | *inkolo- |
| 2. | agua | water | *was |
| 3. | anciana | old woman | |
| 4. | araña | spider | *katu |
| 5. | ardilla | squirrel | *suri |
| 6. | bailar | dance | *uli- |
| 7. | bañar | bathe | *twa- |
| 8. | beber | drink | *tali- |
| 9. | blanco | white | *soko |
| 10. | boca | mouth | *in |
| 11. | bueno | good | *sam |
| 12. | cabello | hair | *asak |
| 13. | caites | sandals | *waktik |
| 14. | camarón | shrimp | *siksik |
| 15. | camino | path | *k’in |
| 16. | casa | house | *t’aw |
| 17. | cerrar | close (verb) | *inkap- |
| 18. | cinco | five | *ts’aj |
| 19. | comal | comal | *k’elkin |
| 20. | comprar | buy | *liwa- |
| 21. | cortar | cut | *tajk- |
| 22. | coyol | coyol | *juku |
| 23. | coyote | coyote | *sua |
| 24. | chupar | suck | |
| 25. | decir | say | *aj- |
| 26. | desear | want | *saj |
| 27. | diente | tooth | *nek |
| 28. | dos | two | *pe |
| 29. | él | he | *inani |
| 30. | enfermo, estar | sick | *ona- |
| 31. | espina | thorn | *ma |
| 32. | este | this | *na |
| 33. | estrella | star | *sirik |
| 34. | flor | flower | *sula |
| 35. | fuego | fire | *juk’a |
| 36. | grande | big | *pukV |
| 37. | guacal | tub | *k’akma |
| 38. | hermano | brother | *pelek |
| 39. | hígado | liver | *muts’u |
| 40. | hormiga | ant | *its’its’i |
| 41. | hueso | bone | *ts’ek |
| 42. | ir | go | *o- |
| 43. | jocote | jocote | *muraka |
| 44. | lavar | wash | *ts’ajk- |
| 45. | leña | firewood | *sak |
| 46. | lluvia | rain | *so |
| 47. | macho | male | *kew |
| 48. | maíz | corn | *ajma |
| 49. | mapachín | raccoon | *wala |
| 50. | milpa | cornfield | *ta |
| 51. | montaña | mountain | *kotan |
| 52. | mover | move | *lum- |
| 53. | nariz | nose | *nep |
| 54. | niño | boy | *we |
| 55. | nosotros | we | *apinani |
| 56. | nube | cloud | |
| 57. | oír | hear | *eni- |
| 58. | orinar | urinate | *wajsa- |
| 59. | pavo | turkey | *lok |
| 60. | peine | comb | *tenmaskin |
| 61. | pelo, pluma | hair, feather | |
| 62. | perro | dog | *su |
| 63. | pico | peak | *ints’ek |
| 64. | piedra | stone | *ke |
| 65. | piña | pineapple | *mats’ati |
| 66. | piojo | louse | *tem |
| 67. | puerco de monte | wild pig | *map’it, *nap’it |
| 68. | pulga | flea | *t’ut’u |
| 69. | quebracho | quebracho tree | *sili |
| 70. | quién | who | *k’ulan |
| 71. | reír | laugh | *jolo- |
| 72. | río | river | *wara |
| 73. | roble | oak | *mal |
| 74. | ropa | clothes | *lam- |
| 75. | rostro | face | *tik |
| 76. | saber | know | *ti- |
| 77. | seis | six | *wi |
| 78. | sembrar | sow | *isa- |
| 79. | tapesco, cama | bed frame, bed | *le- |
| 80. | tigre (jaguar), león (puma) | tiger (jaguar), lion (puma) | *lepa |
| 81. | tocar | touch | *jete- |
| 82. | trabajar | work | |
| 83. | tres | three | *lawa |
| 84. | tú | you (sg.) | *amanani |
| 85. | uña | fingernail | *kumam |
| 86. | venir | come | *po- |
| 87. | yo | I | *unani |
| 88. | zarigüeya | opossum | *ts’ewe |
| 89. | zopilote | vulture | *kus |
References
edit- ^ a b c Liliana Fuentes Monroy (2012). "Buscan rescatar lengua potón". La Prensa. Archived from the original on 2016-09-24. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Pequeño vocabulario de la lengua lenca ; (dialecto de Guajiquiro)". Latin American Pamphlet Digital Collection - CURIOSity Digital Collections. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
- ^ Newson, Linda. El costo de la conquista. Editorial Guaymuras. ISBN 9789992615577.
- ^ Costenla Umaña, Adolfo (2002). "Acerca de la relación genealógica de las lenguas lencas y las lenguas misumalpas". Revista de Filología y Lingüística. Universidad de Costa Rica.
- ^ Campbell, Lyle (2012), "Classification of the Indigenous Languages of South America", The Indigenous Languages of South America, DE GRUYTER, pp. 59–166, doi:10.1515/9783110258035.59, ISBN 9783110258035
- ^ Constenla-Umaña, Adolfo (2005). "Existe relacion genealogica entre las lenguas misumalpas y las chibchenses?". Estudios de Linguistica Chibcha. 23: 9–59.
- ^ Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013).
- ^ "HALLAN EN NICARAGUA RUINAS PRECOLOMBINAS QUE SUPONEN DE LENCAS". HALLAN EN NICARAGUA RUINAS PRECOLOMBINAS QUE SUPONEN DE LENCAS. Retrieved 2024-02-04.
- ^ a b Dalma Mejía (September 30, 2023). "Researcher Atanasio Herranz presents his conference "The Nahuatl language in Honduras" at Unah-vs". www.laprensa.hn (in Spanish). Retrieved 2024-04-18.
- ^ a b "Lenca Languages of Honduras".
- ^ Adams, Richard N. (1957). "Cultural surveys of Panama, Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras". Scientific Publication; 33. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
- ^ Frederick Meza (August 9, 2019). "The last lenca of Guatajiagua".
- ^ King, Alan R. (2016). Conozcamos el Lenca. Una lengua de El Salvador.
- ^ Aburto, Wilfredo Miranda (2023-12-13). "The Lenca heritage resists in the east of El Salvador | Photo report 📸". Divergentes (in Spanish). Retrieved 2024-04-18.
- ^ "Beatriz Cortez ¿Dónde están los indígenas? La identidad nacional y la crisis de la modernidad en La guerra mortal de los sentidos de Roberto Castillo". Retrieved 2012-09-30.
- ^ Arguedas Cortés, Gilda Rosa. 1988. Los Fonemas Segmentales del Protolenca: Reconstrucción Comparativa. Filología y lingüística XIV. 89-109.
Bibliography
edit- Campbell, Lyle. 1997. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Campbell, Lyle. 2012. The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. De Gruyter Mouton: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/Boston.
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1981). Comparative Chibchan Phonology. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia).
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1991). Las lenguas del Área Intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, San José.
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1995). Sobre el estudio diacrónico de las lenguas chibchenses y su contribución al conocimiento del pasado de sus hablantes. Boletín del Museo del Oro 38-39: 13-56.
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (2005). "Existe relacion genealogica entre las lenguas misumalpas y las chibchenses?" Estudios de Linguistica Chibcha. 23: 9–59.
- Fabre, Alain. 2005. Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos: LENCA. [1]
- Hemp, Eric. 1976. "On Earlier Lenca Vowels". International Journal of American Linguistics 42(1): 78-79.
- Lehman, Walter. 1920. Zentral-Amerika. see pp. 700–719 (Salvadoran Lenca) and pp. 668–692 (Honduran Lenca).
External links
edit