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Nhanda, also rendered Nanda, Nhanta and Nhandi, is an Australian Aboriginal language from the Midwest region of Western Australia, between Geraldton and the Murchison River, from the coast to about 20 kilometres (12 miles) inland. The language is now spoken, or semi-spoken, by only a few people.
| Nhanda | |
|---|---|
| Nanda, Nhanta, Nhandi | |
| Native to | Australia |
| Region | Geraldton to Shark Bay area of Western Australia |
| Ethnicity | Nhanda |
| Extinct | by 1975[1] |
| Revival | 11-50 (2018-19)[1] |
Pama–Nyungan
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | nha |
| Glottolog | nhan1238 |
| AIATSIS[2] | W14 |
| ELP | Nhanta |
The AIATSIS Austlang database says: "According to [Juliette] Blevins (2001:3) three dialects of Nhanda can be identified: Nhanda, the northernmost dialect, Watchandi W13, the central dialect, and Amangu W12, the southern dialect. Thus Nhanda is both a language name and a dialect name". No speakers are listed in successive tallies since 1975, but the Irra Wangga Language Centre (formerly Yamaji Language Centre) has been working on its revival, originally led by Blevins.[1] Nanakarti was apparently a distinct language.
While Nhanda is usually considered a member of the Kartu branch of the Pama–Nyungan family,[3] distinctive features of Nhanda, relative to neighbouring languages have caused some linguists to question this classification,[4][5] and/or classify Nhanda as an isolate.
A controversial hypothesis, first raised by historian Rupert Gerritsen, suggests that the unusual features of Nhanda may result from undocumented language contact during the early modern era, with Dutch – in the form of shipwrecked seafarers stranded in Australia before European settlement had officially begun.[6] Gerritsen's hypothesis has been rejected by linguist Juliette Blevins,[7] an authority on Nhanda. Gerritsen critiqued the rejection of his views by Blevins in a subsequent paper, re-outlining his evidence of Dutch influence on Nhanda.[8]
Vocabulary
editThe Nhanda word for 'man, human being' is arnmanu. It appears that when Norman Tindale collected information on Nhanda (or on the closely related variety thought to have been spoken in Geraldton) he was given this word, which he recorded as 'Amangu' and believed to be the 'tribal name' for this group. Blevins provides a word list at the end of her grammar.[9]
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Phonology
editNhanda differs somewhat from its neighbouring languages in that it has a phonemic glottal stop, is initial-dropping (i.e. it has lost many initial consonants, leading to vowel-initial words) and the stop consonants show a phonemic length contrast.
Vowels
edit| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| High | i iː | u uː |
| Low | a aː | |
- An unstressed /a/ can be realised as [ə] or [ʌ].
Consonants
edit| Peripheral | Laminal | Apical | Glottal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilabial | Velar | Palatal | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | |||
| Stop | voiceless | p | k | c | t̪ ⟨th⟩ | t | ʈ ⟨rt⟩ | ʔ ⟨'⟩ |
| voiced | b | ɡ | ɟ ⟨j⟩ | d̪ ⟨dh⟩ | d | ɖ ⟨rd⟩ | ||
| Nasal | m | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ | ɲ ⟨ny⟩ | n̪ ⟨nh⟩ | n | ɳ ⟨rn⟩ | ||
| Lateral | ʎ ⟨ly⟩ | l̪ ⟨lh⟩ | l | ɭ ⟨rl⟩ | ||||
| Rhotic | r ⟨rr⟩ | ɻ ⟨r⟩ | ||||||
| Semivowel | w | j ⟨y⟩ | (j̪ ⟨yh⟩) | |||||
Grammar
editNhanda is a split-ergative language, meaning the nominals take an ergative-absolutive case system while the pronominals take a nominative-accusative one.
| Case | Suffix | Nasal Suffix |
|---|---|---|
| Ergative | -lu | -nngu |
| Absolutive | ∅ | ∅ |
| Nominative | ∅ | ∅ |
| Accusative | -nha | -nha |
| Instrumental | -lu | -nngu |
| Locative | -gu | -nngu |
| Locative path | -galu | -nngalu |
| Allative | -nngu | -nngu |
| Ablative | -ngu | -ngu |
| Dative | -wu | -wu |
ngayi
1.SG
nyina-nhaa
sit-NPAST
mambu-gu
bone-LOC
I'm sitting on a bone
Nhanda distinguishes singular (unmarked), dual (-thada), and plural forms (-nu). The dual suffix is a reduced form of wuthada ('two'). If a plural suffix is applied to a root that ends with an u, base-final umlaut is triggered and the u becomes an i. Case and number suffixes have free order.[9]
There are no true unbound third person pronouns in Nhanda.
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | ngayi | ngayi-thada | ngayi-nu |
| 2nd | nyini | nyini-thada | nyini-nu |
Bound pronouns, however, are a different case.
| Direct Object | Subject | Oblique | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -nha | -wa | -tha |
| 1DU,PL | -wana | -wana | -wana |
| 2SG | -mda | -nyja | -nygu |
| 2DU,PL | |||
| 3SG | unmarked | unmarked | -ra |
| 3DU,PL | -ndha |
Nhanda verbs consist of a root followed by zero or more derivational suffixes. The two major conjugation classes are called NH and Y. There is no dominant word order.
| NH | Y | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Past | -nhii | Past Perfective | -i |
| Past Imperfective | -nu | ||
| Non-past | -nhaa | Present | -a |
| Future Realis | -ndha | ||
| Future Irrealis | -nda, -ndha | Future Irrealis | -nda, -ndha |
| Imperative | -ga, ∅ | Imperative | -ga |
| Ambulative | -nggula | Ambulative | -nggula |
Language revival
editJuliette Blevins, at the time employed at the University of Western Australia, researched Nhanda in the 1990s and early 2000s in collaboration with the Yamaji Language Centre (now the Irra Wangga Language Centre) and published a grammar of the language.[9] An illustrated topical dictionary, Nhanda Wangganhaa, was published by the Yamaji Language Centre in 1998.[10] Other published works include papers on its phonology and history.[11] Doug Marmion has also been working on the language.[1]
References
editCited references
edit- ^ a b c d "W14: Nhanda / Nanda^". Austlang. AIATSIS. 26 July 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2020.
- ^ W14 Nhanda at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
- ^ Bowern, Claire. 2011. "How Many Languages Were Spoken in Australia?", Anggarrgoon: Australian languages on the web, December 23, 2011 (corrected February 6, 2012)
- ^ Blevins, Juliette (December 1999). "Nhanta and its position within Pama–Nyungan". Oceanic Linguistics. 38 (2). University of Hawai'i Press: 297–320. doi:10.2307/3623295. JSTOR 3623295.
- ^ Bowern & Koch (2004) Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method
- ^ Gerristen, Rupert (1994). And their ghosts may be heard. Fremantle: Fremantle Arts Centre Press.
- ^ Blevins, Juliette (1998). "A Dutch influence on Nhanda? Wanyjidaga innga!". Journal of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies: 43–46.
- ^ Dutch influence on Nhanda
- ^ a b c d Blevins, Juliette (2001). Nhanda: An aboriginal language of Western Australia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 192. ISBN 9780824823757.
- ^ Yamaji Language Centre (1998). Nhanda Wangganhaa = Talking Nhanda: an illustrated wordlist of the Nhanda language of Western Australia. Geraldton, Western Australia: Yamaji Language Centre. p. 62. ISBN 9781875661015.
- ^ "Midwest Languages: Nhanda". Bundiyarra Aboriginal Community Aboriginal Corporation. Retrieved 14 January 2020.
Other references
edit- Blevins, Juliette; Marmion, Doug (1994). "Nhanta historical phonology". Australian Journal of Linguistics. 14 (2): 193–216. doi:10.1080/07268609408599509.
- Blevins, Juliette; Marmion, Doug (1995). "Nhanta glottal stop". Oceanic Linguistics. 34 (1). University of Hawai'i Press: 139–160. doi:10.2307/3623116. JSTOR 3623116.