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Thracian language

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The Thracian language (/ˈθreɪʃən/) is an extinct and poorly attested language, spoken in ancient times in Southeast Europe by the Thracians. The linguistic affinities of the Thracian language are poorly understood, but it is generally agreed that it was an Indo-European language.[2]

Thracian
RegionBulgaria, European Turkey, parts of Southern Serbia, parts of the region of Macedonia (including Paeonia), regions in Northern Greece, parts of Romania, parts of Bithynia in Anatolia. Probably also spoken in parts of Dardania.
Extinct6th century AD[1]
Greek
Language codes
ISO 639-3txh
txh
Glottologthra1250

The point at which Thracian became extinct is a matter of dispute. However, it is generally accepted that Thracian was still in use in the 6th century AD: Antoninus of Piacenza wrote in 570 that there was a monastery in the Sinai, at which the monks spoke Greek, Latin, Syriac, Egyptian, and Bessian – a Thracian dialect.[3][4][5][6]

A classification put forward by Harvey Mayer, suggests that Thracian (and Dacian) belonged to the Baltic branch of Indo-European, or at least is closer to Baltic than any other Indo-European branch.[7] However, this theory has not achieved the status of a general consensus among linguists. These are among many competing hypotheses regarding the classification and fate of Thracian.[8]

Geographic distribution

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The Thracian language or languages were spoken in what is now Bulgaria,[9][10] Romania, North Macedonia, Northern Greece, European Turkey and in parts of Bithynia (North-Western Asiatic Turkey).

Remnants of the Thracian language

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Limits of the (southern) Thracian linguistic territory according to Ivan Duridanov, 1985

Little is known for certain about the Thracian language, since no text has been satisfactorily deciphered. Some of the longer inscriptions may be Thracian in origin but they may simply reflect jumbles of names or magical formulas.[11]

Enough Thracian lexical items have survived to show that Thracian was a member of the Indo-European language family.

Besides the aforementioned inscriptions, Thracian may be attested through personal names, toponyms, hydronyms, phytonyms, divine names, etc. and by a small number of words cited in Ancient Greek texts as being specifically Thracian.[12][unreliable source?]

There are 23 words mentioned by ancient sources considered explicitly of Thracian origin and known meaning.[13][14] Of the words that are preserved in ancient glossaries, in particular by Hesychius, only three dozen can be considered "Thracian". However, Indo-European scholars have pointed out that "even the notion that what the ancients called "Thracian" was a single entity is unproven."[15] The table below lists potential cognates from Indo-European languages, but most of them have not found general acceptance within Indo-European scholarship. Not all lexical items in Thracian are assumed to be from the Proto-Indo-European language, some non-IE lexical items in Thracian are to be expected.

Word Meaning Attested by Cognates Notes
ἄσα (asa) colt's foot (Bessi) Dioskurides Lit. dial. asỹs 'horse-tail, Equisetum', Latv. aši, ašas 'horse-tail, sedge, rush' The etymology of both Baltic words is unclear and extra-Baltic cognates have yet to be established.[16]
βόλινθος (bólinthos) aurochs, European bison Aristotle Proto-Slavic *volъ ("ox"). Per Beekes, Pre-Greek.[17] See also Gk. βοῦς 'cow', but Latv. govs ' id ' both < PIE *gwṓws. Proto-Slavic *vòlъ has no extra-Slavic cognates.
βρία (bría) unfortified village Hesychius, compare the Toponyms Πολτυμβρία, Σηλυ(μ)μβρία, and Βρέα in Thrace. Compared to Greek ῥίον (ríon; "peak, foothills") and Tocharian A ri, B riye ("town") as if < *urih₁-. Alternatively, compare Proto-Celtic *brix- ("hill"). Gk ῥίον has no clear etymology.[18] The Toch lemmata may be related.[19]
βρίζα (bríza) rye Galen Perhaps of Eastern origin, compare Greek ὄρυζα, Sanskrit vrīhí- ("rice"). The 'rice' words in Gk and IIr are wanderworts. The Gk word may be borrowed from an Eastern Iranian language.[20]
βρυνχός (brynkhós) kithara[21] Compared with Slavic *bręčati "to ring". The Proto-Slavic lemma is reconstructed based exclusively on Serbo-Croatian brecati 'twang, be insolent' and consequently may not even be reconstructable to its own proto-language as there are no external or internal comparanda. It may be onomatopoetic in nature. Furthermore, there is a grave issue with the inscription, as Gk /ŋ/ is written with a gamma before a velar, i.e., this word should be written βρυγχός, which it is not.
βρῦτος (brŷtos) beer of barley many Slavic "vriti" (to boil), Germanic *bruþa- ("broth"), Old Irish bruth ("glow"), Latin dē-frŭtum ("must boiled down").[21][a]
dinupula, si/nupyla wild melon Pseudoapuleus Lithuanian šùnobuolas, lit. ("dog's apple"), or with Slavic *dynja ("melon"). Per Vladimir Georgiev, derived from *kun-ābōlo- or *kun-ābulo- 'hound's apple'.[21] Proto-Slavic *dyña (from earlier *kъdyña is most likely borrowed from Gk. κῠδώνῐον via Lat. cydōnia.[23]
γέντον (génton) meat Herodian., Suid., Hesych Possibly descended from IE *gʷʰn̥tó- 'strike, kill', cf. Sanskrit hatá- 'hit, killed' The adjective *gʷʰn̥tós in the zero-grade has an *-s in the nom.sg., whereas in Thracian the word ends in a nasal, which is a serious issue that requires morphological remodelling in Thracian for it to be posited as the starting point for Thracian γέντον. Furthermore, the e-grade vowel of the Thracian potential avatar remains to be explained as well if from an original PIE *gʷʰn̥tós.
καλαμίνδαρ (kalamíndar) plane-tree (Edoni) Hesych.
κη̃μος (kêmos) a kind of fruit with follicle Phot. Lex.
κτίσται (ktístai) Ctistae Strabo
midne (in a Latin inscription, thus not written with Gk alphabet) village inscription from Rome Latvian mītne 'a place of stay', Avestan maēϑana- 'dwelling'[24]
Πολτυμ(βρία) (poltym-bría) board fence, a board tower Old English speld 'wood, log' The OE lemma is poorly understood and extra-Germanic cognates are few and far between. OE speld may have descended from a PIE root *(s)pley- which is poorly attested and does not seem to be a formal match to the Thracian term.
ῥομφαία (rhomphaía) broadsword Compared with Latin rumpō ("to rupture"),[21] Slavic: Russian разрубать, Polish rąbać ("to hack", "to chop", "to slash"), Polish rębajło ("eager swordsman"), Serbo-Croatian rmpalija ("bruiser") The Slavic terms here must come from a medial *-bh-, whereas Lat. rumpō 'I break' must descend from a medial *-p-[25] and therefore those words aren't even cognate with each other, let alone with the Thracian term.
σκάλμη (skálmē) knife, sword Soph. y Pollux, Marcus Anton., Hesych., Phot. L Albanian shkallmë ("sword"), Old Norse skolmr 'cleft' The Albanian term is likely a secondary innovation. ON skolmr is unclear and has no extra-Germanic cognates;[26] it is unlikely to be related to the Thracian term.
σκάρκη (skárkē) a silver coin Hesych., Phot. Lex.
σπίνος (spínos) 'a kind of stone, which blazes when water touches it' (i.e. 'lime') Arist. PIE *k̑witn̥os 'white, whitish', Greek τίτανος (Attic) and κίττανος (Doric) 'gypsum, chalk, lime'.
Although from the same PIE root, Albanian shpâ(ni) 'lime, tartar' and Greek σπίνος 'lime' derive from a secondary origin as they were probably borrowed from Thracian due to phonetic reasons[27]
τορέλλη (toréllē) a refrain of lament mourn song Hesych.
ζαλμός (zalmós) animal hide Porphyr. Per Georgiev, derived from *kolmo-s. Related to Gothic hilms, German Helm and Old Iranian sárman 'protection'.[21] Thracian initial ζ- can either be related to PIE *ḱ (as in these 'cognates' and several below) or to *ǵh-/*gh- as in the following entry, but not both. There does not exist an OIr word sárman,[28] but a word śárman does exist in Sanskrit. However, Sanskrit ś- must go back to a PIE *ḱ-, not *k- as Georgiev states.
ζειρά (zeira) long robe worn by Arabs and Thracians Hdt., Xen., Hesych. Per Georgiev, related to Greek χείρ (kheir) and Phrygian ζειρ (zeir) 'hand'.[21] See above. The meaning of Phrygian ζειρα(ι) is unknown, not 'hand' as Georgiev believes.[29]
ζελᾶ (zelâ), also ζῆλα (zêla), ζηλᾱς (zelās) wine many Compared with Greek χάλις (khális; "unblended wine") and κάλιθος (kálithos; "wine") See above.
ζετραία (zetraía) pot Pollux Per Georgiev, related to Greek χύτρα (khútra) 'pot'.[21] See above.
zibythides the noble, most holy one Hesych. Lith. žibùtė ("shining")

Inscriptions

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The following are the longest inscriptions preserved. The remaining ones are mostly single words or names on vessels and other artifacts. No translation has been accepted by the larger Indo-European community of scholars.[30]

Ezerovo inscription

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The Ring of Ezerovo, found in 1912

Only four Thracian inscriptions of any length have been found. The first is a gold ring found in 1912 in the village of Ezerovo (Plovdiv Province of Bulgaria); the ring was dated to the 5th century BC.[31] The ring features an inscription in a Greek script consisting of 8 lines, the eighth of which is located on the rim of the rotating disk; it reads without any spaces between: ΡΟΛΙΣΤΕΝΕΑΣΝ / ΕΡΕΝΕΑΤΙΛ / ΤΕΑΝΗΣΚΟΑ / ΡΑΖΕΑΔΟΜ / ΕΑΝΤΙΛΕΖΥ / ΠΤΑΜΙΗΕ / ΡΑΖ // ΗΛΤΑ

Dimitar Dechev (Germanised as D. Detschew) separates the words as follows:[32][33]

ΡΟΛΙΣΤΕΝΕΑΣ

Rolisteneas

ΝΕΡΕΝΕΑ

Nerenea

ΤΙΛΤΕΑΝ

tiltean

ΗΣΚΟ

ēsko

ΑΡΑΖΕΑ

Arazea

ΔΟΜΕΑΝ

domean

ΤΙΛΕΖΥΠΤΑ

Tilezypta

ΜΙΗ

miē

ΕΡΑ

era

ΖΗΛΤΑ

zēlta

ΡΟΛΙΣΤΕΝΕΑΣ ΝΕΡΕΝΕΑ ΤΙΛΤΕΑΝ ΗΣΚΟ ΑΡΑΖΕΑ ΔΟΜΕΑΝ ΤΙΛΕΖΥΠΤΑ ΜΙΗ ΕΡΑ ΖΗΛΤΑ

Rolisteneas Nerenea tiltean ēsko Arazea domean Tilezypta miē era zēlta

I am Rolisteneas, a descendant of Nereneas; Tilezypta, an Arazian woman, delivered me to the ground.

Kyolmen inscription

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A second inscription, hitherto undeciphered, was found in 1965 near the village of Kyolmen [bg], Varbitsa Municipality, dating to the sixth century BC. Written in a Greek alphabet variant, it is possibly a tomb stele inscription similar to the Phrygian ones; Peter A. Dimitrov's transcription thereof is:[34]

ΙΛΑΣΝΛΕΤΕΔΝΛΕΔΝΕΝΙΔΑΚΑΤΡΟΣΟ[35]
ΕΒΑ·ΡΟΖΕΣΑΣΝΗΝΕΤΕΣΑΙΓΕΚΟΑ[36]
ΝΒΛΑΒΑΗΓΝ[35]

i.e.

ilasnletednlednenidakatroso
eba·rozesasnēnetesaigekoa
nblabaēgn

Duvanlii inscription

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A third inscription is again on a ring, found in Duvanlii [bg], Kaloyanovo Municipality, next to the left hand of a skeleton. It dates to the 5th century BC. The ring has the image of a horseman[37] with the inscription surrounding the image.[38] It is only partly legible (16 out of the initial 21):

ΗΥΖΙΗ

ēuziē

.....

.....

ΔΕΛΕ

dele

/

/

ΜΕΖΗΝΑΙ

mezēnai

ΗΥΖΙΗ ..... ΔΕΛΕ / ΜΕΖΗΝΑΙ

ēuziē ..... dele / mezēnai

The word mezenai is interpreted to mean 'Horseman', and a cognate to Illyrian Menzanas (as in "Juppiter/Jove Menzanas" 'Juppiter of the foals' or 'Juppiter on a horse');[39][40][41] Albanian mëz 'foal'; Romanian mînz 'colt, foal';[42][43] Latin mannus 'small horse, pony';[44][45] Gaulish manduos 'pony' (as in tribe name Viromandui[46] 'men who own ponies').[47][48][b]

Classification

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Main article: Classification of Thracian

Due to a paucity of evidence required to establish a linguistic connection, the Thracian language, in modern linguistic textbooks, is usually treated either as its own branch of Indo-European,[50] or is grouped with Dacian, together forming a Daco-Thracian branch of IE. Older textbooks often grouped it also with Illyrian or Phrygian. The belief that Thracian was close to Phrygian is no longer popular and has mostly been discarded.[51]

Much of the information in the following table is either outdated or entirely incorrect and can be contested by looking at a dictionary of any of the languages in question or any of the four major textbooks of Indo-European. Some of the biggest issues: Tocharian collapsed voiceless, voiced, and voices aspirates into voiceless stops;[52] Armenian doesn't have aspirated voiceless stops (but rather ejective);[53]; the anaptyctic vowels of Germanic,[54] Balto-Slavic,[55] and Italic[56] that developed from syllabic resonants are all different (but are shown as being the same because the table is badly constructed and -oR- does not equal -uR-); we know what happened with the dental clusters medially in Hittite and it's -zz-,[57] it is unclear what the '+/-' for the labiovelars in Indo-Iranian could mean as they had the same outcome (aside from a potential loss of occlusion in Indic when *gwh is followed by something other than a front vowel),[58] it is also unclear what the '+/-' for the Albanian branch indicates as that is one language branch. Furthermore, there are no data or attestations of Pelasgian whatsoever[59] and its inclusion in the table is confusing. Due to these major omissions and errors, this table is unlikely to be used as a datum for Thracian historical phonology.

Language/difference according to Duridanov (1985)
Change o > a r > ir, ur (or)
l > il, ul (ol) 		m > im, um (om)
n > in, un (on) 		kʷ, gʷ, gʷʰ
> k, g (k), g 		ḱ, ǵ, ǵʰ
> s (p), z (d) 		p, t, k
> pʰ, tʰ, kʰ 		b, d, g
> p, t, k 		bʰ, dʰ, gʰ
> b, d, g 		sr > str tt, dt > st
Thracian + + + + + + + + + +
Dacian + + + + + - - + + -
Balto-Slavic + + + + + - - + -/+ +
Pelasgian + + + + + + + + ? ?
Albanian + + - +/- +/- - - + - -
Germanic + + + - - - + + + -
Indo-Iranian + - - +/- + - - +/- - +/-
Greek - - - - - - - - - +
Phrygian - - - - + + + + - ?
Armenian - - - - + + + - - ?
Italic - + - - - - - - - -
Celtic - - - - - - - + - -
Hittite + - - - - - + + ? ?
Tocharian +/- - - - - - + + - ?

There is a fringe belief[60][61] that Thraco-Dacian forms a branch of Indo-European along with Baltic,[62] but a Balto-Slavic linguistic unity is so overwhelmingly accepted by the Indo-European linguistic community that this hypothesis does not pass muster.

Fate of the Thracians and their language

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According to Skordelis, when Thracians were subjected by Alexander the Great they finally assimilated to Greek culture and became as Greek as Spartans and Athenians, although he considered the Thracian language as a form of Greek.[63] According to Crampton (1997) most Thracians were eventually Hellenized or Romanized, with the last remnants surviving in remote areas until the 5th century.[64] According to Marinov the Thracians were likely completely Romanized and Hellenized after the last contemporary references to them of the 6th century.[65]

Another author considers that the interior of Thrace have never been Romanized or Hellenized (Trever, 1939).[66] This was followed also by Slavonization. According to Weithmann (1978) when the Slavs migrated, they encountered only a very superficially Romanized Thracian and Dacian population, which had not strongly identified itself with Imperial Rome, while Greek and Roman populations (mostly soldiers, officials, merchants) abandoned the land or were killed.[67] Because Pulpudeva survived as Plovdiv in Slavic languages, not under Philippopolis, some authors suggest that Thracian was not completely obliterated in the 7th century.[68][69]

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^ Valdés (2017) cites other cognates to the root: Celtic deity Borvo and Latin ferveo "I boil" (from e-grade).[22]
  2. ^ A similarly looking word Mandicae 'to Mandica' is attested in an inscription from Asturia. It has been suggested to mean the name of a goddess related to foals.[49]

References

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  1. ^ Thracian at MultiTree on the Linguist List
  2. ^ Fortson 2004, p. 404
  3. ^ Arnold Joseph Toynbee, Some problems of Greek history, Oxford University Press, 1969, p. 56: In the late sixth century there were still Bessian-speaking monks in the monastery at the foot of Mount Sinai (see P. Geyer Itinera Hierosolymitana, Vienna 1898, Templaky, pp. 184; 213.)
  4. ^ Oliver Nicholson as ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity; Oxford University Press, 2018; ISBN 0192562460, p. 234:...The "Piacenza Pilgrim (56) mentioned Bessian-speaking monks on the Sinai Peninsula. ABA J. J. Wilkes, The Illyrians (1992)...
  5. ^ J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams as ed., Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture; Taylor & Francis, 1997; ISBN 1884964982, p. 576: The most recently attested Thracian personal names are found in two monasteries in the Near East (the Bessi of Mt Sinai) dating to the sixth century AD.
  6. ^ Bessian is the language of the Bessi, one of the most prominent Thracian tribes. The origin of the monasteries is explained in a mediaeval hagiography written by Symeon the Metaphrast in Vita Sancti Theodosii Coenobiarchae in which he wrote that Saint Theodosius founded on the shore of the Dead Sea a monastery with four churches, in each being spoken a different language, among which Bessian was found. The place at which the monasteries were founded was called "Cutila", which may be a Thracian name.
  7. ^ Mayer, Harvey E. "Dacian and Thracian as Southern Baltoidic." In: Lituanus: Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences. Volume 38, No. 2 – Summer 1992.. Editor of this issue: Antanas Klimas, University of Rochester. ISSN 0024-5089. 1992 Lituanus Foundation, Inc.
  8. ^ 1994 Gottfried Schramm: A New Approach to Albanian History
  9. ^ Encyclopedia of European peoples, Carl Waldman, Catherine Mason, Infobase Publishing, 2006, ISBN 0-8160-4964-5, p. 205.
  10. ^ Archaeology and language: the puzzle of Indo-European origins, Colin Renfrew, CUP Archive, 1990, ISBN 0-521-38675-6, p. 71.
  11. ^ Olteanu et al.
  12. ^ Duridanov, Ivan. "The Language of the Thracians". Retrieved 2007-01-14.
  13. ^ Duridanov, I. (1976). The Language of the Thracians (An abridged translation of Ezikyt na trakite, Ivan Duridanov, Nauka i izkustvo, Sofia, 1976. (c) Ivan Duridanov).
  14. ^ Georgiev, Vladimir I.. "Thrakisch und Dakisch". Band 29/2. Teilband Sprache und Literatur (Sprachen und Schriften [Forts.]), edited by Wolfgang Haase, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 1983. pp. 1151–1153. doi:10.1515/9783110847031-015
  15. ^ Fortson, B. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: an Introduction. p. 404.
  16. ^ Fraenkel, Ernst (1962). Litauisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. p. 124.
  17. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 225
  18. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 1287
  19. ^ Adams, D. (2013). A Dictionary of Tocharian B: Enlarged and Greatly Revised. p. 582.
  20. ^ Beekes 2009, pp. 1112–1113
  21. ^ a b c d e f g Georgiev, Vladimir I.. "Thrakisch und Dakisch". Band 29/2. Teilband Sprache und Literatur (Sprachen und Schriften [Forts.]), edited by Wolfgang Haase, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 1983. p. 1152. doi:10.1515/9783110847031-015
  22. ^ Valdés, Marcos Obaya. "Averamientu al astúricu. Vocalización de les nasales del grau-cero indo-européu: *mo > am / *no > an, y delles propuestes etimolóxiques". In: Lletres asturianes: Boletín Oficial de l'Academia de la Llingua Asturiana Nº. 117, 2017, p. 64. ISSN 2174-9612
  23. ^ Vasmer, M. (1973). Этимологический словарь русского языка [Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language] (in Russian), ed. Oleg Trubačev.
  24. ^ Fortson 2004, p. 404
  25. ^ Rix, H.; et al. (2001). Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben [Lexicon of Indo-European Verbs] (in German).
  26. ^ de Vries, J. (1977). Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch [Etymological Dictionary of Old Norse] (in German). p. 498.
  27. ^ Witczak, Krzysztof Tomasz (2012). "Studies in Thracian vocabulary (I–VII)". Studia Indogermanica Lodziensia. VII: 153–168. pp. 159–161.
  28. ^ Bartholomae, C. (1961). Altiranisches Wörterbuch [Old Iranian Dictionary] (in German). pp. 1564–1567.
  29. ^ Klein et al., edd. (2018) HCHL:1820, chapter XVI.101 'Phrygian' by Ligorio and Lubotsky.
  30. ^ Klein et al. edd., Jared (2018). "XVI Languages of fragmentary attestation, section 104 by Claude Brixhe". Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. De Gruyter. p. 1851. There are as many interpretations of these as there are investigators; and as a result these monuments have not contributed anything to our knowledge of the language
  31. ^ "Golden ring with Thracian inscription. NAIM-Sofia exhibition". National Archaeological Institute with Museum, Sofia.
  32. ^ Duridanov, Ivan (1985). Die Sprache der Thraker. Bulgarische Sammlung (in German). Vol. 5. Hieronymus Verlag. ISBN 3-88893-031-6. Ich bin Rolisteneas, Sprößling des Nereneas; Tilezypta, Arazerin nach ihrer Heimat, hat mich der Erde übergeben (d.h. begraben).
  33. ^ Russu, Ion I. (1969). Die Sprache der Thrako-Daker (in German). Ed. Ştiinţificā.
  34. ^ Dimitrov, Peter A. (2009). "The Kyolmen Stone Inscription". Thracian Language and Greek and Thracian Epigraphy. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4438-1325-9.
  35. ^ a b Written from right to left.
  36. ^ Written from left to right.
  37. ^ Pleket, H.W., and R.S. Stroud, eds. 1994. Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum. 41–584. Amsterdam. doi:10.1163/1874-6772_seg_a41_584
  38. ^ Orel, Vladimir E. (1986). "On Two Minor Thracian Inscriptions". Glotta. 64 (1/2): 48–49. JSTOR 40266737. Accessed 22 July 2024.
  39. ^ Georgiev, Vladimir I. (1981). Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages (3rd ed.). Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. p. 116. Μεζην = nom.-voc., which is under the figure of the horseman, is the name of the Thracian god-horseman; it corresponds to the name (epithet) of the Messapian god Menzana (Iupiter), to whom horses were offered as a sacrifice. Both names are derived from *mendy-ān 'horseman', a derivative of *mendi(o)- 'horse'; they are related to Alb. mëz- 'stallion' and Rum. (Dac.) mînz 'stallion'.
  40. ^ Orel, Vladimir E. (1986). "On Two Minor Thracian Inscriptions". Glotta. 64 (1/2): 49. JSTOR 40266737. Georgiev (1977, 112) suggested to connect MEZHNAI with Iuppiter Menzana, which seems more plausible, if one remembers of the mounted figure on the ring, Menzana being a deity connected with the horse-cult. (...) The second word mezēnai could be identified with Menzana and treated as a name of a deity. Accessed 22 July 2024.
  41. ^ Meudler, Marcel (2003). "Mézence, un théonyme messapien?". Revue des Études Anciennes (in French). 105 (1): 5–6. doi:10.3406/rea.2003.5647.
  42. ^ Oreshko, Rostislav (2020). "The onager kings of Anatolia: Hartapus, Gordis, Muška and the steppe strand in early Phrygian culture" (PDF). Kadmos. 59 (1–2): 118=. doi:10.1515/kadmos-2020-0005.
  43. ^ Pax Leonard, Stephen (2021). "Hipponyms in Indo-European: using register to disentangle the etyma". Journal of Language Relationship. 19 (1–2): 4. doi:10.1515/jlr-2021-191-206 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  44. ^ Kaluzkaja, Irina. "Thracian-Illyrian language parallels: Thrac. MEZENAI – Illyr. Menzanas". In: Thracian World at Crossroad of Civilizations – Proceedings of 7th International Congress of Thracology. Bucharest: 1996. pp. 372–373.
  45. ^ Francisco Marcos-Marin. "Etymology and Semantics: Theoretical Considerations apropos of an Analysis of the Etymological Problem of Spanish mañero, mañeria." In: Historical Semantics—Historical Word-Formation. de Gruyter, 1985. p. 381.
  46. ^ Balmori, C. Hernando. "Notes on the etymology of sp. 'perro'". In: Etudes Celtiques, vol. 4, fascicule 1, 1941. p. 49. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1941.1177
  47. ^ Georgiev, Vladimir I.. "Thrakisch und Dakisch". Band 29/2. Teilband Sprache und Literatur (Sprachen und Schriften [Forts.]), edited by Wolfgang Haase, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 1983. p. 1161. doi:10.1515/9783110847031-015
  48. ^ Cazacu, Boris [in Romanian] (1980). "Einige Fragen zur Ausarbeitung eines neuenetymologischen Wörterbuchs der rumänischen Sprache [DISKUSSION AKTUELLER PROBLEME]". Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie. 96 (5–6): 509–510. doi:10.1515/zrph.1980.96.5-6.489. Vl. Georgiev zeigte, daß es dieses Wort auch im Thrakischen gab, wo die Form Mezenai unter dem Bild des thrakischen Ritters auftaucht. [Vl. Georgiev demonstrated that the word existed in Thracian, with the form Mezenai, under the depiction of the Thracian Horseman.]
  49. ^ Valdés, Marcos Obaya. "Averamientu al astúricu. Vocalización de les nasales del grau-cero indo-européu: *mo > am / *no > an, y delles propuestes etimolóxiques". In: Lletres asturianes: Boletín Oficial de l'Academia de la Llingua Asturiana Nº. 117, 2017, p. 67. ISSN 2174-9612
  50. ^ Fortson 2004, p. 404
  51. ^ See C. Brixhe – Ancient languages of Asia Minor, Cambridge University Press, 2008
    We will dismiss, at least temporarily, the idea of a Thraco-Phrygian unity. Thraco-Dacian (or Thracian and Daco-Mysian) seems to belong to the eastern (satem) group of Indo-European languages and its (their) phonetic system is far less conservative than that of Phrygian (see Brixhe and Panayotou 1994, §§ 3ff.)
  52. ^ Ringe, Don A. (1996). On the Chronology of Sound Changes in Tocharian. p. 152.
  53. ^ Godel, R. (1975). An introduction to the Study of Classical Armenian. p. 9.
  54. ^ Ringe, Don A. (2017). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, 2nd ed. p. 100.
  55. ^ Leskien, A. (1969). Handbuch der altbulgarischen Sprache, 9th ed. p. 15.
  56. ^ Weiss, M. (2020). Outline of the Historical and Comparative Grammar of Latin. p. 103-4.
  57. ^ Melchert and Hoffner, C. and H. (2008). A Grammar of the Hittite Language. p. 44.
  58. ^ Beekes 2011, p. 123
  59. ^ Klein et al. edd., Jared (2018). "XVI Languages of fragmentary attestation, section 109 by R.S.P. Beekes". Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. De Gruyter. p. 1874. "The attempt to determine phonological rules for an Indo-European pre-Greek language ('Pelasgian')...is considered a complete failure today
  60. ^ Klein et al. edd., J. (2018). "81 'The Phonology of Slavic' by Daniel Petit". Handbook of Comparative and Historical Linguistics. p. 1966.
  61. ^ Arumaa, P. (1966). Urslavische Grammatik: Einführung in Das Vergleichende Studium Der Slavischen Sprachen, Band I: Einleitung • Lautlehre. pp. 18–23.
  62. ^ Holst (2009):66.
  63. ^ Daskalov, Roumen; Vezenkov, Alexander (13 March 2015). Entangled Histories of the Balkans – Volume Three: Shared Pasts, Disputed Legacies. BRILL. p. 51. ISBN 9789004290365.
  64. ^ R.J. Crampton (1997). A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-521-56719-X.
  65. ^ Daskalov, Roumen; Vezenkov, Alexander (13 March 2015). Entangled Histories of the Balkans – Volume Three: Shared Pasts, Disputed Legacies. BRILL. p. 10. ISBN 9789004290365.
  66. ^ Trever, Albert Augustus. History of Ancient Civilization. Harcourt, Brace. p. 571
  67. ^ Michael W. Weithmann, Die slawische Bevölkerung auf der griechischen Halbinsel (Munich 1978)
  68. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 576. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
  69. ^ Katičić, Radoslav (1976). Ancient Languages of the Balkans. Mouton. p. 136.

General references

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  • Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4.

Further reading

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Onomastics

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Lexicon

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Toponymy and hydronymy

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