Wikipedia

Ethnic groups in Central America

(Redirected from Indigenous peoples of Central America)

Central America is a subregion of the Americas[1] formed by six Latin American countries and one (officially) Anglo-American country, Belize. As an isthmus it connects South America with the remainder of mainland North America, and comprises the following countries (from north to south): Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama.

Countries and capitals of Central America

The inhabitants of Central America represent a variety of ancestries, ethnic groups, and races, making the region one of the most diverse in the world. Biologically the whole population is the result of mixed Amerindian–European-African, although the cultural classification consist to self-identified as mestizo, while others trend to self-identified as European or Black African ancestry. Asian and mixed race Afro-Amerindian minorities are also identified regularly. People with mestizo ancestry are the largest single group, and along with people who claim having a greater European ancestry, comprise approximately 80% of the population,[2] or even more.[3]

In 2007, Central America had a population of approximately 40 million persons within an area of 523,780 km2, yielding an overall density of 77.3 inhabitants/km2 that is not distributed evenly. For example, Belize is larger than El Salvador in area by 1,924 km2, but El Salvador has 30 times the population of Belize. Similarly, the population of Costa Rica is greater than that of Panama, while Panama is greater in area. Guatemala has the largest population with 13.2 million, followed by Honduras at 7.8 million.

Population and density

edit
Country or
territory with flag 		Area
(km2) (per sq mi) 		Population
(July 2012 est.) 		Population density
per km2 		Capital
  Guatemala 108,889 km2 (42,042 sq mi) 14,099,032 116.8/km2 (4,913.9/sq mi) Guatemala City
  Belize 22,966 km2 (8,867 sq mi) 307,899 13/km2 (546.9/sq mi) Belmopan
  El Salvador 21,040 km2 (8,120 sq mi) 6,090,646 330.2/km2 (13,891.9/sq mi) San Salvador
  Honduras 112,090 km2 (43,280 sq mi) 8,296,693 66.7/km2 (2,806.1/sq mi) Tegucigalpa
  Nicaragua 129,494 km2 (49,998 sq mi) 5,727,707 43.8/km2 (1,842.7/sq mi) Managua
  Costa Rica 51,100 km2 (19,700 sq mi) 4,636,348 70.8/km2 (2,978.6/sq mi) San José
  Panama 78,200 km2 (30,200 sq mi) 3,360,474 41.4/km2 (1,741.7/sq mi) Panama City
Total 523,780 42,071,038 77.3/km2
See also: Demographics of Latin America

Mestizos

edit
 
Salvadoran School Children from Metapan

Central American Admixture began with the arrival of the Spaniards to Central America, whose consequences could still be perceived in the present-day Central American Society. During the colonial period, Mestizos were the result of the admixture between Spaniards and Native Americans (or Amerindians), although the scope of this admixture (including African presence) covered all citizens during next generations, potentially all population have Europeans, Amerindian and African ancestors. [4]

Self-identified or classified Mestizos are the majority in El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Nicaragua.[5] formed by 22,425,257 inhabitants, occupying the majority of the Central American population, and all 7 countries have significant Mestizo populations.

The Mestizaje begins when Europeans arrived in the territory of Central America, due to the shortage of European women, European men intermarried with indigenous women. Mestizos used the third social group of the social pyramid of the Spanish, although in countries like Costa Rica and El Salvador, the mestizos were seen as the same group with the Criollos, for various reasons such as the scarcity of indigenous populations, at this point of the history, majority of population in Central America were biologically mixed but in El Salvador and Costa Rica several future borns leave the indigenous tribes, not the same in Guatemala or Honduras until XVIII century.[4] In Costa Rica, caste systems were implemented, which appeared different terms.[6]

The country with the highest percentage of classified Mestizo population in the Central American Region is Honduras, with multitudes of Mestizo populations scattered throughout its territory. In El Salvador and Nicaragua the classified Mestizo population is the majority. In Costa Rica the classified mestizo population is the first ethnic minority, although according to the surveys it is seen as the same group with the people who identified themselves as Whites, the majority of the population is made up of whites/mestizos.[7][8]

Amerindians

edit
See also: Indigenous peoples of the Americas
 
Rigoberta Menchú, Human rights activist. K'iche'-Guatemalan

The only plurality of Amerindian, or indigenous, people in Central America is in Guatemala. Amerindians comprise minorities in the other Central American countries.

Before the arrival of the Spanish Europeans in Central America, there were 1,100,000 people in Honduras, 800 thousand people in Guatemala, 450 thousand in Costa Rica, 325.1 thousand in Nicaragua, 196.8 thousand in Panama, 91.7 thousand in El Salvador and only 7 thousand in Belize.[9] However, the numbers are highly variable, according to Bernardo Augusto Thiel, the indigenous population in Costa Rica was around 27,000, in El Salvador less than 100,000, in Nicaragua, Honduras and Panama 750,000 and more than a million in Guatemala, on the other hand, other historians gave intermediate figures, more than a million in Guatemala and Honduras, 750 thousand in Nicaragua and Panama, 200,000 in El Salvador and 100,000 in Costa Rica.[10][11][12]

The indigenous population had a significant decline due to diseases and hostility of the Spanish towards the indigenous, mainly in Costa Rica and El Salvador, which many people left their indigenous tribes at the beginning of colonial rule.[10] The progressive unions between Europeans and Amerindians cause the loss of racial purity both inside the region and whole continent.

After independence, the indigenous population classified was very numerous, in Guatemala it represented 64%,[13] around 30% of the populations of Honduras and Nicaragua, 20% in El Salvador[14] and in Costa Rica 13% were classified as indigenous.[15]

Guatemala

edit
Main article: Ethnic groups in Latin America

The classified Amerindian populations in Guatemala include the K'iche' 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9% and Q'eqchi 6.3%. 8.6% of the population is "other Mayan," 0.4% is indigenous non-Mayan, making the indigenous community in Guatemala about 40.5% of the population.[16]

Belize

edit

Roughly 10% of the population is self-identified as Amerindian, mostly Maya. Three Maya groups now inhabit the country: The Yucatec (who came from Yucatán, Mexico to escape the Caste War of the 1840s), the Mopan (indigenous to Belize but were forced out by the British; they returned from Guatemala to evade slavery in the 19th century), and Kekchi (also fled from slavery in Guatemala in the 19th century).[17] The later groups are chiefly found in the Toledo District.

Panama

edit

According to the 2010 census in Panama, approximately 12.3% of the nation's population indentified themselves as indigenous. The Amerindian population figure stood at 417,500 individuals in 2010.[18]

Honduras

edit
 
Berta Caceres, Lencan environmental activist. -Honduran

About 7% of the Honduran population are members of one of the seven recognized indigenous groups, most of them are from Lenca, Chorti, and Tolupan origin.[19]

Nicaragua

edit
 
Nicarao community in Rivas, Nicaragua.

5% of Nicaraguans are classified as Amerindians, the unmixed descendants of the country's indigenous inhabitants. Nicaragua's pre-Columbian population consisted of many indigenous groups. In the western region the Nicarao people, a Nahua group after whom the country is named, were present along with other other Mesoamerican groups such as the Chorotegas and the Subtiabas who are Otomangueans.[20] The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by indigenous peoples who were mostly chibcha related groups that had migrated from South America, primarily present day Colombia and Venezuela. These groups include the Miskitos, Ramas and Sumos. In the 19th century, there was a substantial indigenous minority, but this group was also largely assimilated culturally into the mestizo majority.[21]

Costa Rica

edit
Main article: Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica

There are over 104,000 classified Amerindian inhabitants, comprising 2.4% of the Costa Rican population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Guaymí (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and Térraba (southern Costa Rica).[22]

El Salvador

edit
 
Indigenous Salvadoran women dancing in the traditional "Procession of Palms" a custom celebrated in the town of Panchimalco in El Salvador.

Only 1% of the Salvadoran population consider themselves as indigenous in the census, mostly Pipil, Lenca and Kakawira (Cacaopera). The current low numbers of indigenous people may be partly explained by mass murders by European colonizers.[23] They wanted to exterminate the indigenous race and other tribes in Central America. Today many Pipil and other Indigenous populations live in small towns of El Salvador like Izalco, Panchimalco, Sacacoyo, and Nahuizalco.[24]

Country or
territory with flag 		% Local Population % Regional
  Guatemala 40.5 6,976,989
  Belize 10.6 32,495
  El Salvador 1.0 60,906
  Honduras 7.0 545,499
  Nicaragua 5.0 294,559
  Costa Rica 2.4 104,000
  Panama 12.3 417,500
Total 8,431,988 16.24

Europeans

edit
 
Young Costa Ricans in San José.

The first contact of Europeans with Central America occurred in 1502, during the fourth voyage of Christopher Columbus, who sailed the Caribbean coasts of present-day Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.[25]

After the conquest of the native population, the Spanish established a caste system in which they and their descendants occupied the upper part of the social pyramid. Being the peninsular who had the right to high political, religious and military positions. It is for this reason that it was the White settler population who started the independence movements at the beginning of the 19th century.[26]

When Central America became independent in El Salvador they were more than 10% classified in the census. In Costa Rica they were more than 9%, Guatemala and Nicaragua they represented 5%. In Honduras were classified less than 3%.[27][28][29][30][31]

Liberal reforms began in 1870 in Central America, being successful in Guatemala, El Salvador and Costa Rica, this attracted thousands of immigrants, mainly Italian, German and Spanish.[32][33]

The construction of large infrastructure works such as the Panama Canal or the Atlantic Railroad in Costa Rica, demanded the entry of thousands of Spanish, Italian and Greek workers.

Germans also arrived in Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa Rica to dedicate themselves to agricultural activities,[34][35] In Costa Rica and El Salvador, the entry of hundreds of thousands of Italians in the first decades of the 20th century was one of the most important movements that had demographic weight.[36][37][38]

In the First and Second World War, thousands of Jews, mainly from Germany and Poland, entered the Region Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Guatemala were the ones that received the most.[39][40][41][33]

Currently Costa Rica has the highest percentage of people classified as Euro-Latino or white origin, followed by Nicaragua and El Salvador, however there are also significant populations classified in the other Central American nations.[42]

Costa Rica: As of 2012, most Costa Ricans are primarily of Spanish ancestry. Many also have German, Italian, French, Dutch, British, Swedish, and Greek ancestry. Whites and mestizos together are classified at 83% of the population.[43][44] European migrants used Costa Rica to get across the isthmus of Central America as well to reach the Californian coast in the late-19th and early-20th centuries prior to the opening of the Panama Canal. Other European ethnic groups known to live in Costa Rica include Russians, Danes, Belgians, Portuguese, Croats, and Hungarians.

Nicaragua: 17% of Nicaraguans are classified as white, mostly of German and Spanish descent, resulting in Nicaragua having one of the largest white populations in Central America.[45] During the mid-19th century and early-20th century immigration was encouraged by the government giving land in areas of Esteli, Jinotega, Matagalpa, Managua-El Crucero, Carazo, Nueva Segovia and Madriz, mainly to German, but also French and Eastern European immigrants who were willing to work the land. In addition Nicaragua has the second largest Russian diaspora in Central America after Guatemala.[46]

El Salvador: 12% of Salvadorans are classified white, mostly descendants of the Spaniard colonizers, with others descending from French, Italians, Portuguese, British, Germans and some other Central European ethnic groups.

Panama: Less than 7% of the Panamanian population identifies as white.[47] European immigration to Panama in the 19th and 20th centuries included British people, Irish people, Dutch people, French people, Germans, Italians, Portuguese people, Poles, and Russians.

Guatemala: Five percent of Guatemalans identified themselves as whites of European descent in their majority Spanish and German.

Belize: In 2010 there were 13,964 classified White people living in Belize, forming 4.6% of the total population. 10,865 or 3.6% of the population were Mennonites of German/Dutch descend.

Honduras: 1% of the Honduran population is identified as white, in other statistics it appears that whites in Honduras made up the 3% of the total population.[47][48] These are people of mainly Spanish, British, Italian, French, and Jewish ancestry. However, the term white in Honduras can be a somewhat ambiguous definition, similar to what happens in other Latin American countries. This is because any white-skinned person is called a chele, a word in Honduras used for white skinned pople, whether they are of Euro descent or of another ethnic origin, as in the case of Arabs, who in general in the case of Honduras are mostly of Palestinian descent.

Afro Central Americans

edit
 
Nery Brenes Costa Rican Athlete

The self-identified Creole, Afro-Caribbean, and Garifuna populations form the majority of the Afro-Latin Americans in Central America, of which the majority is concentrated on the Caribbean coasts of the region. All these groups are distinct, speaking English, English creoles, Garifuna, Miskito, and Spanish. The highest percentage is 31% in Belize, where Kriols and Garifuna were once the majority of the nation that has seen heavy emigration and immigration in the last 30 years.[49][50]

The largest population, however, is in Honduras of Garifuna, English-speaking Creoles, Afro-Hondurans, and to a lesser degree of Miskito descent, of which the majority is concentrated on the Caribbean coast and the Bay Islands Department. An estimated 600,000 Hondurans are of Garífuna descent, and, in addition to the Miskito and Creole population, Honduras has one of the largest African communities in Latin America.[51][52][53] In Costa Rica about 8% of the population is classified as Black African descent or Mulatto (mix of European and black) who are called Afro-Costa Ricans, English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers. In Panama people who claim being of African descent were already present when the construction of an inter-oceanic channel saw the large arrival of immigrant afro-Caribbeans. Honduras has a small population of creole people, but the overwhelming majority of blacks are Garifuna. Classified Afro-Guatemalans are concentrated in the Caribbean department of Izabal and consist of a mix of Garifunas and other Afro-Caribbeans. Although El Salvador is the only Central American country with no official black percentage, El Salvador has had black African slavery in its history during the colonial era, over time they mixed with both Amerindians and Europeans causing their offspring to join into the general Mestizo population.[54] But Afro-Salvadoran heritage commonly do exist.[55]

Kriols In Belize, Kriols make up roughly 21% of the Belizean population and about 75% of the Diaspora. They are descendants of the Baymen slave owners, and slaves brought to Belize for the purpose of the logging industry.[56] These slaves were mostly Black (many also of Miskito ancestry) from Nicaragua and born Africans who had spent very brief periods in Jamaica.[57] Bay Islanders and more Jamaicans came in the late 19th century, further adding these all ready varied peoples, creating this ethnic group.

For all intents and purposes, Kriol is an ethnic and linguistic denomination, but some natives, even those blonde and blue-eyed, may call themselves Kriols. It is defined as more a cultural attribute and not limited to physical appearance.[57]

Country or
territory with flag 		% Local Population % Regional
  Guatemala 2.0 276,489
  Belize 31 95,488
  Honduras 2.0 600,000
  Nicaragua 9.0 500,000
  Costa Rica 8.0* 333,727
  Panama 14.0 470,466
Total 1,862,234 4.43

*(includes mulattoes)

Asians

edit
 
Harry Shum, Jr Asian-Costa Rican – Glee Actor/Dancer
 
Celebration of the Chinese year in Costa Rica

Panama: Chinese-Panamanian population today presents 4% or 135,000. Ethnic Chinese in Panama, also variously referred to as Chinese-Panamanian, Panamanian-Chinese, Panama Chinese, or in Spanish as Chino-Panameño,[citation needed] are Panamanian citizens and residents of Chinese origin or descent.[58][59][60]

Costa Rica: Today, Asians represent almost 1% of the Costa Rican population. the first Chinese people in Costa Rica migrants arrived in Costa Rica in 1855; they were a group of 77 originally from Guangzhou, who had come to Central America to work on the Panama Railway. Of them, 32 found work on the farm of José María Cañas, while the remaining 45 were hired by Alejandro Von Bulow, an agent sent by the Berlin Colonization Society to prepare suitable sites for German settlement in Costa Rica. During the 1859–1863 administration of José María Montealegre Fernández, laws were promulgated which prohibited the migration of blacks and Asians, in an effort to reserve Costa Rica for European settlers.[61]

Early Chinese migrants typically arrived by sea through the Pacific coast port of Puntarenas; a "Chinese colony" began to form in the area, founded by José Chen Apuy, a migrant from Zhongshan, Guangdong who arrived in 1873.[62] Puntarenas was so widely known among the Chinese community as a destination that some in China mistook it for the name of the whole country.[63]

In the 1970s, Taiwan began to become a major source of Chinese immigration to Costa Rica. However, they formed a transitory group, with many using Costa Rica as a stopover while they waited for permission to settle in the United States or Canada.[64] Those who settled permanently in Costa Rica included many pensioners enjoying their retirement abroad.[62]

Most Chinese immigrants since then have been Cantonese, but in the last decades of the 20th century, a number of immigrants have also come from Taiwan and Japan. Many men came alone to work and married Costa Rican women and speak Cantonese. However the majority of the descendants of the first Chinese immigrants no longer speak Cantonese and feel themselves to be Costa Ricans.[65]

Nicaragua: There are 12,000 Chinese Nicaraguans Chinese people first arrived in Nicaragua's Caribbean coast in the latter part of the 19th century, and most of them settled in cities such as Bluefields, El Bluff, Laguna de Perlas, and Puerto Cabezas.[66] The Chinese immigrants dominated the commerce of the main coastal towns on the Caribbean coast prior to 1879. Then in the late 19th century, they began migrating to the Pacific lowlands of the country.[67]

Country or
territory with flag 		% Local Population % Regional
  Nicaragua 0.18% 12,000
  El Salvador 0.09% 6,240
  Guatemala 1.0% 138,000
  Honduras 1.0% 67,120
  Costa Rica 1% 60,000
  Panama 6% 160,000
Total 576,290 1.21%

Genetic composition

edit
Average genetic admixture
Country % European % Amerindian % Subsaharan African
  Costa Rica[68] 61 30 9
  Nicaragua[69] 52 35 13
  Honduras[70] 50 42 8
  El Salvador[69] 47 49 4
  Guatemala[71] 41 56 3
  Panama[72] 25 51 24

References

edit
  1. ^ "Central America". central-america.org. Retrieved 4 September 2016. Central America is located between North and South America and consists of multiple countries. Central America is not a continent but a subcontinent since it lies within the continent America. It borders on the northwest to the Pacific Ocean and in the northeast to the Caribbean Sea. The countries that belong to the subcontinent of Central America are El Salvador, Costa Rica, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico and Panama.
  2. ^ "CIA — The World Factbook – Field Listing — Ethnic groups". Archived from the original on 2019-01-06. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
  3. ^ Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (May–August 2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" (PDF). Convergencia (in Spanish). 38. Mexico: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades: 185–232, table on p. 218. ISSN 1405-1435. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 20, 2008.
  4. ^ a b Rosenblat, A. (11 June 1954). LA POBLACIÓN INDÍGENA Y EL MESTIZAJE EN AMÉRICA (PDF) (2 ed.). Nova. p. 189. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
  5. ^ "Nicaragua Country Summary".
  6. ^ Meléndez Obando, Mauricio. "Las Castas en Hispanoamérica". nacion.com. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  7. ^ "The World Factbook". CIA.gov. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  8. ^ Araya, Daniel. "Costa Rica es multirracial, último censo lo pone en evidencia". crhoy.com. Archived from the original on 2012-11-14. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  9. ^ Population by Country in 1500
  10. ^ a b Newson, Linda (1999). El Costo de la Conquista.
  11. ^ Solórzano Fonseca, Juan Carlos. "La Población Indígena de Costa Rica en el Siglo XVI Al Momento del Contacto Con Los Europeos" (PDF). scielo.sa.cr. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  12. ^ Marinas Otero, Luis. "Demografía iberoamericana: Su problemática. Raíces y consecuencias" (PDF). Revista de Estudios Políticos. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
  13. ^ "La Colonia, una época de "clasificaciones" y castas". Prensa Libre. 17 September 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  14. ^ Erquicia, Jorge Heriberto. "en-este-mestizaje-hay-tres-grandes-raices-fundamentales-la-indigena-la-negra-y-la-espanola". MINISTERIO DE CULTURA. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
  15. ^ Soto Quirós, Ronald (2008). "Imaginando una nación de raza blanca en Costa Rica : 1821-1914". Amérique Latine Histoire et Mémoire (15). doi:10.4000/alhim.2930. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  16. ^ "Belize" (PDF). 2010 Belize Housing and Population Census. Statistical Institute of Belize. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 11, 2012. Retrieved 7 June 2012.
  17. ^ Cho, Julian (1998). Maya Homeland. University of California Berkeley Geography Department and the Toledo Maya of Southern Belize. Retrieved 4 January 2007.
  18. ^ "Corredor Transístmico Panamá -Colón". Retrieved August 5, 2010.
  19. ^ "Honduras-The World Factbook". CIA.gov. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  20. ^ "Diriangén 1496 or 1497–1530s".
  21. ^ "Nicaragua-The World Factbook". CIA.gov. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  22. ^ "Costa Rica-The World Factbook". CIA.gov. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  23. ^ Historia 1 y 2 El Salvador (PDF). Ministry of Education (El Salvador). ISBN 978-99923-63-68-3.
  24. ^ Lemus, Virginia (18 March 2011). "La Desaparición de los indígenas en El Salvador". distintaslatitudes.net. distintaslatitudes. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
  25. ^ "Descubrimiento del istmo de Centroamérica - Cuarto viaje de Colón". Historia del Nuevo Mundo (in European Spanish). 2010-09-24. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  26. ^ "Independencia de Centroamérica ¿fue real?".
  27. ^ "La Colonia, una época de "clasificaciones" y castas – Prensa Libre" (in Spanish). 17 September 2016. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  28. ^ ""En este mestizaje, hay tres grandes raíces fundamentales: La indígena, la negra y la española": José Heriberto Erquicia | MINISTERIO DE CULTURA". Archived from the original on 2020-11-08. Retrieved 2021-06-11.
  29. ^ "Noticias de deportes en Costa Rica". La Nación (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  30. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-03. Retrieved 2021-06-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  31. ^ Ronald, Soto Quiros (2008). "Imaginando una nación de raza blanca en Costa Rica : 1821-1914". Amérique Latine Histoire et Mémoire (15). doi:10.4000/alhim.2930. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  32. ^ Gómez, Moisés (2017). "Ser extranjero en Centroamérica. Génesis y evolución de las leyes de extranjería y migración en el Salvador: Siglos XIX y XX". Realidad: Revista de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades (135): 117–151. doi:10.5377/realidad.v0i135.3167.
  33. ^ a b https://archive.org/details/inmigracion-europea-en-centroamerica-despues-de-la-colonia [dead link]
  34. ^ "Alemanes en Nicaragua". Archived from the original on 2020-02-24. Retrieved 2021-06-11.
  35. ^ "Revista D - D fondo". 2014-10-28. Archived from the original on 28 October 2014. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  36. ^ "La inmigración italiana en Costa Rica - (Cuarta Parte)". Archived from the original on 2017-04-25. Retrieved 2021-06-11.
  37. ^ "La inmigración italiana en Costa Rica - (Segunda Parte)". Archived from the original on 2021-05-16. Retrieved 2021-06-11.
  38. ^ "Inmigracion Italiana en El Salvador".
  39. ^ "La Voz judía - Panamá tiene una fuerte comunidad judía". www.delacole.com. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  40. ^ "Los judíos sefarditas en Costa Rica". 10 February 2015.
  41. ^ "Castellanos, el Schindler salvadoreño, salta a la gran pantalla".
  42. ^ "The Work Factbook". cia.gov. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  43. ^ Costa Rica. State.gov (2012-04-09). Retrieved 2012-05-19.
  44. ^ "Costa Rica | Joshua Project". www.joshuaproject.net. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  45. ^ "Nicaragua". 22 May 2024.
  46. ^ "Guatemala, un futuro próximo". Edition: IEPALA. Place: Madrid, España. ISBN 978-848543610-1. Year: 1980. P: 61, 66.
  47. ^ a b "Panama". The World Factbook. 21 April 2022.
  48. ^ "Honduras", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 2022-05-10, retrieved 2022-05-12
  49. ^ "Mestizo location in Belize; Location". Archived from the original on 2011-07-15. Retrieved 2008-02-14.
  50. ^ "Diaspora of Belize" Council on Diplomacy, Washington, DC and Consulate General of Belize.
  51. ^ "List of Disappeared Hondurans. N.d. 2 pp". Human Rights Documents online. doi:10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-1226-0119. Retrieved 2022-02-15.
  52. ^ Leocadia., Avni, Ronit. Shende, Suzanne. Caldwell, Gillian. Martinez, Julian. Gutierrez (2002–2004), Garífunas holding ground ; When the river met the sea : Garifunas rebuilding after Hurricane Mitch, Witness, OCLC 69339773, retrieved 2022-02-15{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ "Spotlight on Garifuna history and reparation with Jóse Francisco Ávila". 18 July 2021.
  54. ^ "Afromestizo". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
  55. ^ Montgomery, Tommie Sue (1995). Revolution in El Salvador: from civil strife to civil peace. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-0071-1.
  56. ^ "Belize-Guatemala Territorial Issue – Chapter 1". Belizenet.com. Archived from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  57. ^ a b Johnson, Melissa A. (2003). "The Making of Race and Place in Nineteenth-Century British Honduras" (PDF). Environmental History. 8 (4): 598–617. doi:10.2307/3985885. hdl:11214/203. JSTOR 3985885. S2CID 144161630.[permanent dead link]
  58. ^ Siu, Lok (Summer 2005), "Queen of the Chinese Colony: Gender, Nation, and Belonging in Diaspora", Anthropological Quarterly, 78 (3): 511–42, doi:10.1353/anq.2005.0041, S2CID 144872291, retrieved 2007-11-07
  59. ^ Vega Abad, Lina (2003-07-20), "De Salsipuedes al 'barrio chino'", La Prensa, Panamá (in Spanish), archived from the original on 2007-07-16, retrieved 2007-11-07
  60. ^ "May Expel Panama Chinese; Those Who Refuse to Pay a Head Tax to be Deported To-morrow" (PDF), The New York Times, 1913-11-12, retrieved 2007-11-07
  61. ^ Loría Chaves & Rodríguez Chaves 2001
  62. ^ a b Chen Apuy 1992, p. 3
  63. ^ Chen Apuy 1992, p. 5
  64. ^ Chen Apuy 1992, p. 2
  65. ^ Meg Tyler Mitchell; Margaret Tyler Mitchell; Scott Pentzer (2008). Costa Rica: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-85109-992-4.
  66. ^ Bolívar Juárez, Orient. "Bluefields, rostro de Nicaragua frente al Caribe". La Prensa (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2007-02-06. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
  67. ^ Vásquez, Trinidad. "Fundación Cultural-Nicaragua-China promueven en rasgos de la mileria Cultura China". El Nuevo Diario (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2008-03-15. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
  68. ^ Morera, B.; Barrantes, R.; Marin-Rojas, R. (January 2003). "Gene Admixture in the Costa Rican Population". Annals of Human Genetics. 67 (1): 71–80. doi:10.1046/j.1469-1809.2003.00010.x. PMID 12556237. S2CID 40547133.
  69. ^ a b Salazar-Flores, J.; Zuñiga-Chiquette, F.; Rubi-Castellanos, R.; Álvarez-Miranda, J.L.; Zetina-Hérnandez, A.; Martínez-Sevilla, V.M.; González-Andrade, F.; Corach, D.; Vullo, C.; Álvarez, J.C.; Lorente, J.A.; Sánchez-Diz, P.; Herrera, R.J.; Cerda-Flores, R.M.; Muñoz-Valle, J.F.; Rangel-Villalobos, H. (2015). "Admixture and genetic relationships of Mexican Mestizos regarding Latin American and Caribbean populations based on 13 CODIS-STRS". Homo. 66 (1): 44–59. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2014.08.005. hdl:11336/15953. PMID 25435058.
  70. ^ Kirkegaard, Fuerst et (March 2016). "Estimación de la mezcla genética en la población de Nicaragua" [Admixture in the Americas: Regional and National Differences]. ResearchGate. 56: 366.
  71. ^ Wang, Sijia; Ray, Nicolas; Rojas, Winston; Parra, Maria V.; Bedoya, Gabriel; Gallo, Carla; Poletti, Giovanni; Mazzotti, Guido; Hill, Kim; Hurtado, Ana M.; Camrena, Beatriz; Nicolini, Humberto; Klitz, William; Barrantes, Ramiro; Molina, Julio A.; Freimer, Nelson B.; Bortolini, Maria Cátira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Petzl-Erler, Maria L.; Tsuneto, Luiza T.; Dipierri, José E.; Alfaro, Emma L.; Bailliet, Graciela; Bianchi, Nestor O.; Llop, Elena; Rothhammer, Francisco; Excoffier, Laurent; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; McVean, Gil (21 March 2008). "Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos". PLOS Genetics. 4 (3): e1000037. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037. PMC 2265669. PMID 18369456.
  72. ^ Genetic Ancestry of the Panamanian Population
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnic_groups_in_Central_America&oldid=1257279622#Amerindians"