Iran and Saudi Arabia are engaged in an ongoing struggle for influence in the Middle East and other regions of the Muslim world.[96] The two countries have provided varying degrees of support to opposing sides in nearby conflicts, including the civil wars in Syria[97][98] and Yemen;[99] and disputes in Bahrain,[100] Lebanon,[101] Qatar,[102] and Iraq.[103] The struggle also extends to disputes or broader competition in other countries globally including in West,[104][105] North[106] and East Africa,[105][107] South,[108][109][110][111][112][113] Central,[114][113] Southeast Asia, the Balkans,[115] and the Caucasus.[116]
In what has been described as a new cold war, the conflict is waged on multiple levels over geopolitical, economic, and sectarian influence in pursuit of regional hegemony.[117][118] The rivalry has drawn comparisons to the dynamics of the Cold War era.[119]
As of 2017[update], the rivalry is primarily a political and economic struggle exacerbated by religious differences, and sectarianism in the region is exploited by both countries for geopolitical purposes as part of a larger conflict.[118][120][121] Iran sees itself as the leading Shia Muslim power, while Saudi Arabia sees itself as the leading Sunni Muslim power (see Shia–Sunni relations).[122]
As of 10 March 2023[update], diplomatic relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia have been restored due to Chinese-Iraqi brokered talks,[123] which could have positive implications in the political climate of the Middle East.[124] The deal was concluded after Iranian agreement to stop its military support for the Houthi militants in the Yemeni civil war.[125][126]
Background
editArab–Iranian conflict
editThe Arab–Iranian conflict[127][128][129][130] or Arab-Persian conflict is a term which is used in reference to the modern conflict between Arab League countries and Iran. In a broader sense, the term is also used in reference to the historical ethnic tensions which have existed for centuries between Arabs and Persians[131] as well as the historical religious sectarian conflict between Shia and Sunni Muslims,[132] due to Saudi Arabia and post-revolutionary Iran seeing themselves as the champion leading states for Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims, respectively.
A noteworthy point in this conflict is that Iran has very positive relations with numerous Arab countries such as Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Algeria and Tunisia. Qatar also has established close working relations with Tehran, despite their differences of opinion over the Syrian civil war, with Iran and Turkey two of the non-Arab countries to support Qatar against Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries in the Qatar diplomatic crisis which lasted for over two years. In this regard, the rivalry and tension is often seen as being between Iran and Gulf Arab monarchies (all of which identify more with theocratic governance), such as the GCC states and their allies: namely Egypt, Sudan, Jordan and Morocco. The biggest rivalry in the Arab–Iranian conflict is between Saudi Arabia and Iran, who have been waging a heavy proxy war against each other since the late 1970s.
Iranian Revolution
editThe proxy conflict can be traced back to the Iranian Revolution in 1979, when the US-backed monarchic Imperial State of Iran became an Islamic republic. The revolutionaries called for the overthrow of monarchies and secular governments to be replaced with Islamic republics, much to the alarm of the region's Sunni-run Arab monarchies Saudi Arabia, Ba'athist Iraq, Kuwait, and the other Persian Gulf states, most of whom were monarchies and all of whom had sizeable Shia populations. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia in 1979, Egypt and Bahrain in 1981, Syria in 1982, and Lebanon in 1983.
Prior to the Iranian Revolution, the two countries constituted the Nixon Doctrine's "twin pillar" policy in the Middle East.[133] The monarchies, particularly Iran since the US-led coup in 1953, were allied with the US to ensure stability in the Gulf region and act as a bulwark against Soviet influence during the Arab Cold War between Saudi Arabia and Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser. The alliance acted as a moderating influence on Saudi-Iranian relations.[134]
During this period Saudi Arabia styled itself as the leader of the Muslim world, basing its legitimacy in part on its control of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. In 1962, it sponsored the inaugural General Islamic Conference in Mecca, at which a resolution was passed to create the Muslim World League. The organization is dedicated to spreading Islam and fostering Islamic solidarity under the Saudi purview, and has been successful in promoting Islam, particularly the conservative Wahhabi doctrine advocated by the Saudi government.[135] Saudi Arabia also spearheaded the creation of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 1969.
Saudi Arabia's image as the leader of the Muslim world was undermined in 1979 with the rise of Iran's new theocratic government under Ayatollah Khomeini, who challenged the legitimacy of the Al Saud dynasty and its authority as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.[136][137] King Khalid initially congratulated Iran and stated that "Islamic solidarity" could be the basis of closer relations between the two countries, but relations worsened substantially over the next decade.
Qatif conflict
editThe direct trigger of the Qatif uprising following the 1979 Iranian Revolution was a mourning procession marking the Shia religious holiday of Ashura, which was prohibited to be celebrated publicly in Saudi Arabia. The ensuing marches and protests led to escalating tensions resulting in bloody clashes between demonstrators and the Saudi security forces over the next few days as the latter opened fire on the former. A sequence of protests followed in the next months, sometimes involving mass arrests and violence, but these mainly reflected local and community concerns like discrimination, exploitation, the absence of basic freedoms, and disappointment regarding failed promises of modernisation and development. The uprising was not a direct response to Ayatollah Khomeini's call for revolution, but was inspired by the Iranian Revolution. The Organization of the Islamic Revolution in the Arabic Peninsula (OIR or OIRAP), a regional activist organisation who had connections with Iran was involved in the events of the uprising. The organisation ran a radio station from Iran and had an office in Tehran. It encouraged Shia resistance and demands for the addressing of social and political concerns.[138]
Throughout the 1980s, relations between the Shia and the state remained tense with hundreds of activists in exile as the Shia opposition relocated to Iran after 1979 in light of the then relevant conditions. The OIRAP focused on publishing, fundraising, and building a social movement in Saudi Arabia from Iran, with a non-violent but radical rhetoric, criticising and deeming the Saudi government illegitimate. Between 1982 and mid-1984, hundreds of OIRAP sympathisers were arrested mainly for the distribution of movement literature, the writing of graffiti, fundraising and attempts at large-scale mobilisation, until 1985 when a mass arrest dismantled its internal organisation in Saudi Arabia. The "hajj incident" of 1987 led to the exacerbation of tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran and the OIRAP decided to shift its operations out of Iran to avoid getting caught up in the animosity. OIRAP refused to create a military wing and carry out attacks in Saudi Arabia against the state when the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps urged it to do so.[139]
A new organisation emerged in the wake of the "hajj incident", the Hizbullah al-Hijaz which was willing to ally with Iran and retaliate militarily. Its long-term political goal was the establishment of an Islamic republic in the Arabian Peninsula and advocated the overthrow of the Saudi government through violence, involving implicitly the separation of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. The Hizbullah al-Hijaz was the military wing of the Khat al-Imam movement which referred to the followers of Imam Khomeini's line. The movement was initially religious, social and cultural in nature, but then became politicised. The relations between the two remain unclear. Hizbullah al-Hijaz took over OIRAP's role on the radical end of the spectrum of the Shia opposition in Saudi Arabia and its role in the Iranian propaganda effort against Saudi Arabia. The two distanced themselves from each other leading to the fragmentation of the Saudi Shia Islamist opposition. Hizubllah al-Hijaz perpetrated bombings in Saudi Arabia in response of the "hajj incident", which contributed to Saudi Arabia severing diplomatic relations with Iran on 26 April 1988. However, after 1989 the networks of Hizbullah al-Hijaz and Khat al-Imam inside Saudi Arabia were severely weakened through the arrests of many of its leaders.[139]
Meanwhile, during the Gulf War OIRAP changed its name to Shia Reform Movement (RMS) and its strategy with it, shifting away from the Islamic and Shia discourse and moving towards pro-democracy and pro-human rights activism with government opposition concentrated in Qatif and the Eastern Province. Saudi Shia played an important role in the opposition but during the Gulf War the OIRAP remained loyal to Saudi Arabia. Rapprochement between the opposition and the government became possible after the death of Imam Khomeini and the end of the Gulf War, with diplomatic ties being restored between Iran and Saudi Arabia on 26 March 1991. Hizbullah al-Hijaz opposed the 1993 agreement between the mainly Shia opposition and the government, even when the government released Shia political prisoners and granted amnesty to those in exile, arguing that it would only support it if real gains for the Shia were achievable.The Khat al-Imam movement gained prominence briefly before the 1996 Khobar Towers bombings when some Shia became disillusioned with the agreement. After the attack on the Khobar Towers in 1996 a widespread mass arrest campaign was carried out imprisoning many of its members and individuals associated with it and members of the Hizbullah al-Hijaz, even when the organisation denied its involvement. However, it vowed to continue its struggle against the government and denounced the 1993 deal, even if most of its members were arrested.[139]
Iran maintained its influence over Hizbullah al-Hijaz, but the mainstream of Saudi Shia distanced themselves from it once the Saudi government accepted the RMS as their representative. However, the political reforms and full recognition of Saudi Shia as Saudi citizens and their integration into the state did not get realised. Tensions in the Eastern Province had been building up for years and erupted during the 2011 Arab Spring, but remained confined to Qatif and the Eastern Province within Saudi Arabia. Shia representatives, leaders and notables, among them Khat al-Imam sided with the government and asked the population to stop the protests to preserve sectarian peace, which eventually happened. The protests were accompanied by arrests, violence and demanded democracy, Islam unity and the release of political prisoners. Loyalty of the Shia was questioned and the Saudi state blamed Iran.[139]
Khuzestan conflict
editAmid the Iranian Revolution and the ensuing political crisis, Khuzestani separatists in the city of Ahvaz saw a chance to achieve their goals but the new regime crushed this attempt.[140] Initially the protests demanded the cessation of discrimination against Iranian Arabs and involved other long-standing grievances, but tensions escalated and one hundred Arabs died in the resulting riot.[141] In April 2005 rioting and clashes between protesters and security forces erupted in Ahvaz once again. The reason for the uproar was the government's alleged intention to change Khuzestan's ethnic composition.[142] The ASMLA (Arab Struggle Movement for the Liberation of Ahvaz) in Khuzestan is a Sunni Muslim separatist, ethno-nationalist terrorist organisation seeking to establish an Arab state within Iran, encouraging and engaging in armed struggle against the Iranian state with other similar organisations in the region. It was established covertly in 1999, and its existence was plublicly announced in 2005. Its armed wing, the Mohiuddin Nasser Brigades carried out a series of attacks as a continuation of the 2005 protests in Ahvaz beginning on 12 June 2005 when they attacked public institutions and climaxing on 24 January 2006 when they carried out an attack on a bank in Ahvaz. ASMLA enjoys the financial support of, among other states, Saudi Arabia and positions itself specifically within the context of the Saudi-Iranian proxy conflict by emphasising its sectarian nature to gain sponsors from the Arab World. Saudi Arabia's involvement in its sponsoration is confirmed by the Danish authorities. Its leaders left Iran in 2006, reorganised in the European Union and continued carrying out terrorist attacks against the Iranian state, with attacks on the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and Iran's oil infrastructure.[140] They allegedly perpetrated a bombing in 2013 in Ahvaz,[143] and their latest operation was attacking a military parade in 2018.[140]
Iran–Iraq War
editThe Iran–Iraq War began on 22 September 1980, when Iraq under Saddam Hussein invaded Iran, and it ended on 20 August 1988, when Iran accepted the UN-brokered ceasefire. Iraq wanted to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state, and was worried the 1979 Iranian Revolution would lead Iraq's Shi'ite majority to rebel against the Ba'athist government. The war also followed a long history of border disputes, and Iraq planned to annex the oil-rich Khuzestan Province and the east bank of the Arvand Rud (Shatt al-Arab).
Hussein attempted to take advantage of revolutionary unrest in Iran and quell the revolution in its infancy. Fearing a possible revolutionary wave that could threaten Iraq's stability and embolden its Shia population, Iraq triggered the Iran–Iraq War which lasted for eight years and killed hundreds of thousands. Saddam had reportedly secured Saudi support for Iraq's war effort during an August 1980 visit he made to Saudi Arabia.[144] This was in addition to financial and military support Iraq received from neighbouring leaders in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Kuwait, Jordan, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, in part to hedge Iranian power and prevent the spread of its revolution.
Although Iraq hoped to take advantage of Iran's post-revolutionary chaos, it made limited progress and was quickly repelled; Iran regained virtually all lost territory by June 1982. For the next six years, Iran was on the offensive[145] until near the end of the war.[146]
American support for Iraq during the war had profound effects on Iran. The United States' defense of Saddam and its role in blocking investigations into Iraq's use of chemical weapons on Iranian soldiers and civilians convinced Iran to further pursue its own unconventional weapons program. The government has also used American hostility to justify foreign and domestic policies, including its nuclear program and crackdowns on internal dissent.[147]
Apart from the Iran–Iraq War, Iran and Saudi Arabia engaged in tense competition elsewhere, supporting opposing armed groups in the Lebanese Civil War, the Soviet–Afghan War, and other conflicts. After the Cold War, Iran and Saudi Arabia continued to support different groups and organizations along sectarian lines such as in Afghanistan, Yemen, and Iraq.[148][149][150]
After eight years, war-weariness, economic problems, decreased morale, repeated Iranian military failures, recent Iraqi successes, Iraqi use of weapons of mass destruction, lack of international sympathy, and increased U.S.–Iran military tension all led to a ceasefire brokered by the United Nations.
The conflict has been compared to World War I in terms of the tactics used, including large-scale trench warfare with barbed wire stretched across fortified defensive lines, manned machine gun posts, bayonet charges, Iranian human wave attacks, extensive use of chemical weapons by Iraq, and, later, deliberate attacks on civilian targets. A special feature of the war can be seen in the Iranian cult of the martyr which had been developed in the years before the revolution. The discourses on martyrdom formulated in the Iranian Shiite context led to the tactics of "human wave attacks" and thus had a lasting impact on the dynamics of the war.[151]
1987 Makkah incident
editIn response to the 1987 Makkah incident in which Shia pilgrims clashed with Saudi security forces during the Hajj, Khomeini stated: "These vile and ungodly Wahhabis, are like daggers which have always pierced the heart of the Muslims from the back ... Mecca is in the hands of a band of heretics."[152] Iran also called for the ouster of the Saudi government.[153]
Timeline
editArab Spring
edit
The current phase of the conflict began in 2011 when the Arab Spring sparked a revolutionary wave across the Middle East and North Africa, leading to revolutions in Tunisia, Egypt, and Yemen, and the outbreak of civil war in Libya and Syria. The Arab Spring in 2011 destabilized three major regional actors, Iraq, Syria and Egypt, creating a power void.[154]
These uprisings across the Arab world caused political instability throughout the region. In response, Saudi Arabia called for the formation of a Gulf Union to deepen ties among the member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a political and economic bloc founded in 1981. The proposal reflected the Saudi government's preoccupation with preventing potential uprisings by disenfranchised minorities in the Gulf monarchies as well as its regional rivalry with Iran.[155]
The union would have centralized Saudi influence in the region by giving it greater control over military, economic, and political matters affecting member states. With the exception of Bahrain, members rejected the proposed federation, as Oman, Qatar, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates were wary that it would lead to Saudi dominance.[156]
Arab Winter
editSaudi Arabia has become increasingly concerned about the United States' commitment as an ally and security guarantor. The American foreign policy pivot to Asia, its lessening reliance on Saudi oil, and the potential of rapprochement with Iran have all contributed to a more assertive Saudi foreign policy.[77] In 2015 Saudi Arabia formed the intergovernmental Islamic Military Alliance to Fight Terrorism (IMAFT) in December 2015 with the stated goal of combating terrorism. The coalition currently comprises 41 member states, all of which are led by Sunni-dominated governments. Shia-led Iran, Iraq, and Syria are notably excluded, something which has drawn concerns that the initiative is part of the Saudi effort to isolate Iran.[157][158] Due to the decreasing importance of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict as a wedge issue and mutual tensions with Iran, GCC states have sought strengthened economic and security cooperation with Israel, which is involved in its own proxy conflict with Iran.[159]
The onset of the Arab Winter exacerbated Saudi concerns about Iran as well as its own internal stability. This prompted Riyadh to take greater action to maintain the status quo, particularly within Bahrain and other bordering states, with a new foreign policy described as a "21st century version of the Brezhnev Doctrine".[160][161] Iran took the opposite approach in the hope of taking advantage of regional instability by expanding its presence in the Shia crescent and creating a land corridor of influence stretching from Iraq to Lebanon, done in part by supporting Shia militias in the war against ISIL.[162][163]
While they all share concern over Iran, the Sunni Arab governments both within and outside of the GCC have long disagreed on political Islam. Saudi Arabia's Wahhabi religious establishment and its top-down bureaucracy differ from some of its allies such as Qatar, which promotes populist Sunni Islamist platforms similar to that of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Turkey. Qatar has also drawn criticism from neighboring Sunni countries for its support of controversial transnational organizations like the Muslim Brotherhood, which as of 2015 is considered a terrorist organization by the governments of Bahrain, Egypt, Russia, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.[164]
The United Arab Emirates, on the other hand, supports anti-Islamist forces in Libya, Egypt, Yemen and other countries, and is focused more on domestic issues, similar to Egypt under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. These differences make it unlikely that the Sunni world could unite against both Iran and terrorism, despite shared opposition.[165] Since King Salman came to power in 2015, Saudi Arabia has increasingly moved from its traditional Wahhabist ideological approach to a nationalist one, and has adopted a more aggressive foreign policy.[166]
The complex nature of economic and security concerns, ideological division, and intertwined alliances has also drawn comparisons to pre-World War I Europe.[167] The conflict also shares similarities with the Arab Cold War between Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the 1950s and 1960s. Influence was judged by each state's ability to affect the affairs of neighboring countries, non-state actors played significant roles, and disunity in both camps led to tactical alliances between states on opposing sides.[168][169]
2015 Mina stampede
edit
The 2015 Mina stampede in Mecca during the annual Hajj (Arabic word for pilgrimage) to Mecca further inflamed tensions. Tehran blamed the Saudi government for the tragedy and accused them of incompetence, which Riyadh rejected.[170][171][172] In May 2016 Iran suspended participation in the upcoming Hajj.[173] In September, Saudi Arabia launched a 24-hour Persian language satellite channel to broadcast the Hajj proceedings from 10 to 15 September. Ayatollah Khamenei accused Riyadh of politicizing the Hajj tragedy and argued that Saudi Arabia should not be running the pilgrimage.[174][175]
2016 Saudi executions and attack on Saudi mission in Iran
editOn 2 January 2016, 47 people were put to death in several Saudi cities, including prominent Shiite cleric Nimr al-Nimr. Protesters of the executions responded by demonstrating in Iran's capital, Tehran. That same day a few protesters would eventually ransack the Saudi Embassy in Tehran and later set it ablaze.[176] Police donned riot gear and arrested 40 people during the incident.[177][178][179] In response, Saudi Arabia, along with its allies, Bahrain, Sudan, Djibouti, Somalia, and the Comoros cut diplomatic ties with Iran.[180][181] Iran's foreign ministry responded by saying the Saudis were using the incident as a pretext for fueling tensions.[182]
Upon taking the throne in 2015, King Salman made significant changes in domestic policy in an effort to address growing unemployment and economic uncertainty.[183] Such economic pressures further affected the regional dynamic in 2016. Russia, which had long maintained ties with Iran, also sought closer ties to Saudi Arabia. In September 2016, the two nations conducted informal talks about cooperating on oil production. Both had been heavily affected by the collapse of oil prices and considered the possibility of an OPEC freeze on oil output. As part of the talks, Russian President Vladimir Putin recommended an exemption for Iran, whose oil output had steadily increased following the lifting of international sanctions in January 2016. He stated that Iran deserved the opportunity to reach its pre-sanction levels of output.[184][185] In what was seen as a significant compromise, Saudi Arabia offered to reduce its oil production if Iran capped its own output by the end of 2016.[186]
Extremist movements throughout the Middle East have also become a major division between Iran and Saudi Arabia. During the Cold War, Saudi Arabia funded extremist militants in part to bolster resistance to the Soviet Union at the behest of the United States, and later to combat Shia movements supported by Iran. The support had the unintended effect of metastasizing extremism throughout the region. The Saudi government now considers extremist groups like ISIL and the Al-Nusra Front to be one of the two major threats to the kingdom and its monarchy, the other being Iran.[187]
In a New York Times op-ed, Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif agreed that terrorism was an international threat and called on the United Nations to block funding of extremist ideologies using Iran's WAVE initiative as a framework. However, he placed the blame on Saudi Arabia and its sponsorship of Wahhabism for instability in the Middle East. He argued that Wahhabism was the fundamental ideology shared among terrorist groups in the Middle East, and that it has been "devastating in its impact". He went so far as to proclaim "Let us rid the world of Wahhabism" and asserted that, despite arguments otherwise, Wahhabism was the true cause of the Iran–Saudi Arabia rivalry.[188]
The election of Donald Trump in the United States in 2016 prompted uncertainty from both countries about future US policy in the Middle East, as both were targets of criticism during his campaign. The Saudi government anticipated that the Trump administration would adopt a more hawkish stance than the Obama administration on Iran, which would potentially benefit Riyadh. Iran feared the return of economic isolation, and President Hassan Rouhani made efforts to establish further international economic participation for the country by signing oil deals with Western companies before Trump took office.[189]
2017
editIn May 2017, President Trump declared a shift in US foreign policy toward favoring Saudi Arabia at Iran's expense, marking a departure from President Obama's more reconciliatory approach. This move came days after the re-election of Rouhani in Iran, who defeated conservative candidate Ebrahim Raisi. Rouhani's victory was seen as a popular mandate for liberal reforms in the country.[190]
Several incidents in mid-2017 further heightened tensions. In May 2017, Saudi forces laid siege on Al-Awamiyah, the home of Nimr al-Nimr, in a clash with Shia militants.[191] Dozens of Shia civilians were reportedly killed. Residents are not allowed to enter or leave, and military indiscriminately shells the neighborhoods with artillery fire and snipers are reportedly shooting residents.[192][191][193]
In June, the Iranian state-owned news agency Press TV reported that the president of a Quran council and two cousins of executed Nimr al-Nimr were killed by Saudi security forces in Qatif. During the subsequent crackdown the Saudi government demolished several historical sites and many other buildings and houses in Qatif.[194] On 17 June, Iran announced that the Saudi coast guard had killed an Iranian fisherman.[195] Soon after, Saudi authorities captured three Iranian citizens who they claimed were IRGC members plotting a terrorist attack on an offshore Saudi oilfield.[196] Iran denied the claim, saying that those captured are regular fishermen and demanding their immediate release.[197]
In the wake of the June 2017 Tehran attacks committed by ISIL militants, the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps issued a statement blaming Saudi Arabia, while Saudi Foreign Minister Adel al-Jubeir said there was no evidence that Saudis were involved.[198] Later Iranian official Hossein Amir-Abdollahian stated that Saudi Arabia is the prime suspect behind the Tehran attacks. The commander of IRGC, Major General Mohammad Ali Jafari, claimed that Iran has intelligence proving Saudi Arabia's, Israel's, and the United States' involvement in the Tehran attack.[199] Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei later accused the United States of creating ISIL and of joining Saudi Arabia in funding and directing ISIL in addition to other terrorist organizations.[200]
In October 2017, the government of Switzerland announced an agreement in which it would represent Saudi interests in Iran and Iranian interests in Saudi Arabia. The two countries had severed relations in January 2016.[201]
Several major developments occurring in November 2017 drew concerns that that proxy conflict might escalate into a direct military confrontation between Iran and Saudi Arabia.[202][203] On 4 November the Royal Saudi Air Defense intercepted a ballistic missile over Riyadh International Airport. Foreign Minister Adel al-Jubeir asserted that the missile was supplied by Iran and launched by Hezbollah militants from territory held by Houthi rebels in Yemen. Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman called it "direct military aggression by the Iranian regime" and said that it "may be considered an act of war against the kingdom".[204] Also on 4 November, the Prime Minister of Lebanon resigned, sparking a political crisis seen as part of a Saudi effort to counteract Iran's influence in the country. Bahrain also blamed a 10 November explosion on its main oil pipeline on Iran.[205]
On 24 November 2017, Dubai's security chief Lieutenant General Dhahi Khalfan blamed the 2017 Sinai attack on Al-Jazeera and called for bombing of the network by a Saudi-led coalition.[206] In late November 2017, IRGC commander Jafari said revolutionary Islamic paramilitary forces had formed across the Middle East and surrounding regions to counter the influence of ultraconservative militant jihadi groups and Western powers.[207]
In 2017 Saudi Arabia funded the creation of the Persian language satellite TV station Iran International, operated from London.[208]
2018
edit
Saudi Arabia under King Salman has adopted a more assertive foreign policy, particularly reflected in the country's intervention in Yemen in 2015 and its involvement in Lebanon in 2017. This has continued with the June 2017 appointment of Mohammad bin Salman as Crown Prince, who has been considered the power behind the throne for years.[209][210][211] The Crown Prince has referred to Iran, Turkey, and Islamic extremist groups as a "triangle of evil", and compared Supreme Leader Khamenei to Adolf Hitler.[212][213] The populist, anti-Iranian rhetoric comes at a time of uncertainty over potential fallout from Mohammad bin Salman's consolidation of power, and he has used the rivalry as a means to strengthen Saudi nationalism despite the country's domestic challenges.[166]
As part of the Saudi Vision 2030 plan, Mohammad bin Salman is pursuing American investment to aid efforts to diversify Saudi Arabia's economy away from oil.[214][213] The reforms also include moving the country away from the Sahwa movement, which the Crown Prince discussed in 2017: "What happened in the last 30 years is not Saudi Arabia. What happened in the region in the last 30 years is not the Middle East. After the Iranian revolution in 1979, people wanted to copy this model in different countries, one of them is Saudi Arabia. We didn't know how to deal with it. And the problem spread all over the world. Now is the time to get rid of it."[215]
Both Israel and Saudi Arabia supported the US withdrawal from the Iran nuclear deal.[214][216] In anticipation of the withdrawal, Iran indicated it would continue to pursue closer ties to Russia and China, with Ayatollah Khamenei stating in February 2018: "In foreign policy, the top priorities for us today include preferring East to West."[217] The unilateral decision by the United States drew concerns of increased tensions with Russia and China, both of which are parties to the nuclear agreement.[216] It also heightened tensions in the Middle East, raising the risk of a larger military conflict breaking out involving Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Iran.[218][219]
The United States reinstated sanctions against Iran in August 2018 despite opposition from European allies.[220] The Trump administration also pushed for a military alliance with Sunni Arab states to act as a bulwark against Iran. The plan in consideration would establish a "Middle East Strategic Alliance" with six GCC states in addition to Jordan and Egypt.[221]
The assassination of Jamal Khashoggi prompted international backlash against Saudi Arabia and Mohammad bin Salman.[222] The Trump administration issued a statement reiterating its support for Saudi Arabia and blaming Iran for the war in Yemen.[223] The United States Senate responded to the president by passing bipartisan resolutions condemning the assassination and voting to end United States aid to Saudi Arabia for the war in Yemen, though the measures were considered largely symbolic.[224]
2019-2021
edit.jpg)
Military tensions between Iran and the United States escalated in 2019 amid a series of confrontations involving the US, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. Attacks on oil tankers in the Gulf of Oman took place in May and June.[225][226] In the wake of growing tensions, Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif stated that Iran sought good relations with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and their allies, and called on them to end their dispute with Qatar.[227]
In September 2019 a drone attack was launched on the Saudi Aramco oil processing facility in Abqaiq and Khurais oil field in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. The attack knocked out half of the country's oil supply.[228] Although the Houthi rebels in Yemen claimed responsibility, the US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said that Iran was behind the attack, a charge which Iran denied.[229] Saudi Arabia and the US were reportedly investigating whether the attacks involved cruise missiles launched from Iran or Iraq. US officials had previously concluded that the attack on the East-West pipeline was launched by Iranian-backed militias in southern Iraq, despite Houthi rebels also claiming responsibility.[230]
On 16 September, the US told Saudi Arabia that it had concluded that Iran was a staging ground for the September attack. The US raised the prospect of a joint retaliatory strike on Iran, an action which would potentially broaden into a regional conflict.[231] Saudi Arabia said its investigation was ongoing, but officials alleged that Iranian weapons were used in the strikes and that the attacks were not launched from Yemen. The claims were made without supporting evidence.[232] Iran's Hassan Rouhani, after the attack on Aramco, claimed that Saudi Arabia should take it as a warning to stop its intervention in Yemen. The Saudi-led intervention has led to the deaths of more than thousands to date.[233]
On 3 January 2020, the US launched an airstrike on a convoy near Baghdad International Airport that killed multiple passengers, including Iranian Major general and IRGC Quds Force commander Qasem Soleimani and Iraqi Popular Mobilization Forces commander Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis.[234] The military action came shortly after pro-Iran protesters and Iraqi militiamen attacked the US embassy in Baghdad on 31 December 2019 in response to US airstrikes targeting Iran-backed militia.[235] The airstrike was seen as a major escalation of tensions, and the government of Iran vowed revenge in response.[236] Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif called the attack "an extremely dangerous and foolish escalation" and released a statement saying that "the brutality and stupidity of American terrorist forces in assassinating Commander Soleimani... will undoubtedly make the tree of resistance in the region and the world more prosperous."[237]
On 7 January, Iran attacked Al Asad Airbase and Erbil International Airport in Iraq as an act of revenge.[238][239][240] The attack left 110 injured.
Hours after the missile attacks, during a state of high alert, IRGC forces mistakenly shot down Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, killing all 176 people on board.[241]
On 12 January, Hezbollah Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah called for Iran's allies in the Axis of Resistance—including Iran, the Syrian Arab Republic, Hezbollah, the Popular Mobilization Forces, and the Houthi movement in Yemen—to intensify its military campaigns against the U.S. to expel U.S. forces from the Middle East.[242] During a state visit by Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani of Qatar to Iran, Ayatollah Khamenei called for regional cooperation against the U.S.[243] However, following discussions between Sheikh Tamim and President Rouhani, Tamim concluded that de-escalation and dialogue were the only means to resolve the regional crises.[244] In response to the increased tensions, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and many U.S. states released advisories warning of Iranian cyberattacks, while the Texas Department of Information Resources said Iranian cyberattacks had reached a rate of 10,000 per minute.[245]
The 2019 Warsaw Conference would later lead to the Abraham Accords, with Saudi allies UAE and Bahrain normalizing relations with Israel. This was followed by Morocco and Sudan.[246] This would later lead to the Arab–Israeli alliance, and the Negev Summit.[247][248] The U.S. ,[62] along with Israel allegedly announced the formation of the Middle East Air Defense Alliance (MEAD) in June 2022 with the purpose of countering Iran.[249] Israel stated delegations from the U.A.E, Qatar, Bahrain, Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia,[250] and the U.S. participated in broker talks.[251]
2022
editIn 2022, Iran and Saudi Arabia participated in peace talks brokered by Iraq.[252][253][254] In July of that year, the members of the Gulf Cooperation Council, alongside Jordan, Egypt, Iraq, and the United States participated in the Jeddah Security and Development Summit (JSDS). In the summit, members called on Iran to stop intervening in other countries' affairs, and U.S. President Joe Biden ensured that they will not let Iran obtain a nuclear weapon.[255]
Iran has accused Saudi Arabia, the U.S., and Israel of meddling within their internal affairs due to the Mahsa Amini protests.
In late October 2022, Saudi intelligence was shared to the U.S., warning of an imminent attack by Iran, which placed the GCC, Iraq, and Israel on high alert.[256][257][258] The intelligence showed that Iran was allegedly planning to strike Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and the Persian Gulf. Iran denied these accusations and intel as baseless.[259][260]
Involved parties
editIranian supporters and proxies
editSyria
edit
Syria under Bashar al-Assad has been a strategic ally to both Iranian and Russian interests. Since 2011, the year the civil war broke out, Iran and its allies have actively involved themselves in the Syrian civil war, with many proxies.[261]
Following the civil unrest triggered against the Assad regime with the Arab uprisings, the main reasons for conflict in Syria were competition for regional power and sectarian divisions.[262] The movement received support from Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the US and Turkey with the aim of overthrowing the Assad government. These uprisings also facilitated the influence of right-wing religious groups and parties over the movement, eventually bringing about ISIS.[262]
At the same time, Syria remained the "primary hub in Iran's power projection in the Levant" and has coordinated, and played a facilitator role over, Iran's links with Hezbollah.[262] Syria, together with Iran and Hezbollah, have been considered and defined as the "Axis of Resistance" against Israel and similar competing regional states located in the Levant.[262] In fact, with the intent of preserving the Assad regime, Iran sent General Qassem Suleimani, among other military commanders, providing training and assistance.[262] The Iranian branch of the armed forces in charge of its foreign operations, i.e. the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps or Quds Force (IRGC-QF), intervened in the Syrian crisis by sending thousands of Iranians and by recruiting and training Shi'ites from other states.[263] These, included Liwa Zaynabiyoun recruiting Pakistani Shias, and Liwa Fatimiyoun comprising Afghan Shi'ites.[263] Iranian assistance also came under the shape of communication and intelligence monitoring technologies of the most recent type.[263]
Conversely, the majority of the funding and equipment for the rebels by the Saudi state was transported through Jordan, together with the provision of ideological support.[263] The rebellion was thus legitimised with the issuing by Saudi and other Muftis of fatwas in favour of jihad against the regime in Syria.[263]
The long-term strategic interest of Iran in Syria was secured as the presumed victory of Bashar al-Assad and his allies against Daesh and rebel forces was declared.[263]
Hamas
editHamas has been allies of Iran, Hezbollah and other Iranian proxies and allies.[13][264][265][266][267]
The organisation has received arms from Iran via Sudan that acted as "transshipment point" for their circulation, and Eritrea that allowed Iranian navy use of its ports.[268]
Despite the 2005 cease fire agreement that officially ended the Second Intifada, friction arose as Israel attempted to gain access to the Gaza Strip.[269] Hamas initiated a program of tunnel building to overcome the physical isolation. The history of these tunnels goes back as far as prior to the 1979 peace treaty between Israel and Egypt. They were used for a range of different functions: from supporting economic activity through smuggling goods, but also weapons, to infiltration into Israeli territory, abductions and attacks on Israeli soldiers.The maze of tunnels provided access to homes, mosques, schools and public buildings, according to expert in underground warfare Eado Hecht.[270]
Hamas received strong rhetorical support from regime leaders Ali Khamenei, President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Majlis speaker Ali Larijani.[271] In July 2008, was deemed to be part of Iran's line of defense against an Israeli attack together with Hezbollah, by IRGC chief Ali Jafari.[271] Late May 2008 reports demonstrated Iran's increase in support to Hamas up to $150 million per year.[272]
Hezbollah
editHezbollah is one of the main groups in the Middle East to be described as an 'Iranian proxy'.[273] Hezbollah fights alongside Iranian troops in Syria and supports the Houthis.[274][275][276]
Hezbollah served also as inspiration to Houthis in their success at forcing the IDF out of Lebanon.[citation needed]
Iran aims to use Hezbollah as proxy model to establish throughout Africa.[277] Hezbollah already possesses support in West Africa, given the large presence of Lebanese diaspora. Moreover, the group was also used by Iran in the arming and training of insurgents in Nigeria, and has been engaged in Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, and Senegal.[278]
Hezbollah is often involved in the Illegal drug trade,[279] terrorist activities,[280] proxy warfare, and sectarian violence. Hezbollah is funded by Iran, Syria, Qatar,[281] and Iraq,[282] and was formerly supported by Sudan.[283] Hezbollah is also considered as a terrorist organization by the Arab League and GCC,[284][285] as it often criticizes states like Saudi Arabia[286][287] and Egypt.[288] Morocco has also made claims that Hezbollah funds the Polisario Front via Algeria.[289][290]
Hezbollah has also maintained relations with other Islamic and anti-West movements, including the Popular Mobilization Forces,[291][292] Hamas,[293] the Palestinian Islamic Jihad,[294][better source needed] Al-Ashtar Brigades, Hezbollah Al-Hejaz, Liwa Fatemiyoun,[295] Husayniyun, the Houthis,[296] and the Baqir Brigade.[297] These movements, among the Iranian, Syrian, and Iraqi governments, form the Axis of Resistance against the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Israel.[298]
Nigerian Islamic Movement
editThe Islamic Movement of Nigeria (IMN), a Shiite religious and political organisation founded and headed by Sheikh Ibrahim Zakzaki, constitutes another proxy in the conflict. It constitutes another asset that could enable Iran in disrupting Sunni States in West Africa.[278] Thus, Saudi Arabia by supporting the Nigerian government in its suppressing efforts, and by providing support to rival Sunni groups such as Izala and not seriously condemning Boko Haram's actions, aims to limit its influence and growth in the region.[19]
Houthis
editIran and its allies North Korea, Syria, Iraq, Qatar, Hezbollah, and Venezuela are known to have provided political, economical, diplomatic, and military support to the Houthis[299][300][301][302][303][304][305][36][306][307][308][309][310][311][312]
Houthis overthrew the government in Yemen in the September 21 Revolution or 2014–15 coup d'état, supported by Iran while Saudi Arabia was attempting to restore the central government through a military campaign.[313] Since the uprising, they have evolved into a well-organised and equipped militia in Yemen.[262]
Houthis can be considered to be similar in their response to Hamas, rather than Hezbollah, given the varying degrees of resources and support without actually responding to or informing Iran.[314] In fact, Houthis took control of Sanaa in September 2014, despite Iran's advising restraint.[315] Saudi officials believe Houthis will become the "next Hezbollah" that operates close to Saudi territory.[316] Moreover, Houthis have been supported in their fight against the Yemeni government through a gateway for arms and supplies smuggling from Iran through Somalia since 2015.[317] Access to Somalia, as well as to Eritrea, together with control of Yemen's Red Sea coast through the Houthis, provided Iran's with an enhanced ability to threaten international shipping in the Bab al-Mandeb. An instances of this capacity was constituted by the several attacks on U.S. and coalition vessels that were set in motion from the Yemeni side of the Bab al-Mandeb in 2016.[317]
A military campaign against Houthis was started by a Saudi-led coalition on the request of ousted President Mansur, dividing the state between pro-Houthi forces supported by Iran and pro-Mansur forces supported by Saudi Arabia.[262] The competition between the two countries has exacerbated the suffering of the Yemeni population, the half of which is deemed to be facing a "pre-famine condition", as reported by the UN in 2018.
In 2022, multiple events occurred, including the following:
- On March 16, 2022, Yemen's Houthi rebels said that negotiations with the Saudi-led coalition would be welcome if the site was a neutral country, such as the Gulf states, and that the top goal would be to relieve "arbitrary" restrictions on Yemeni ports and Sanaa airport.[318]
- On March 20, 2022, according to the Saudi energy ministry and official media, Yemen's Iran-aligned Houthi militia fired missiles and drones against Saudi energy and water desalination facilities, causing a short dip in output at a refinery but no injuries.[319]
- On March 26, 2022, the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen gave the Iran-aligned Houthis a three-hour ultimatum to withdraw weaponry from Sanaa's airport and the two Red Sea ports.[320]
- On April 1, 2022, the warring parties in Yemen's seven-year conflict have agreed to a statewide truce for the first time in years, allowing fuel imports into Houthi-held areas and certain planes to operate from Sanaa airport.[321]
- On April 13, 2022, the US Navy announced the formation of a new multinational task force to target arms smuggling in Yemeni waterways, being the latest American military response to Houthi attacks on Saudi Arabia and the UAE.[322]
- On April 28, 2022, as part of a humanitarian move, the Saudi-led coalition fighting in Yemen said that it would release 163 prisoners from Yemen's Iran-aligned Houthi militia who fought against the kingdom.[323]
- On May 6, 2022, the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen said on Friday it transported more than 100 freed inmates to Yemen in conjunction with the International Committee of the Red Cross.[324]
- On May 12, 2022, three officials stated that Yemen's government has agreed to enable Houthi-issued passport holders to travel outside the country.[325]
- On June 2, 2022, Yemen's warring sides agreed to extend a U.N.-brokered truce for another two months on the same terms as the previous agreement, which was set to expire on June 2, according to the United Nations envoy to Yemen.[326]
In April 2023, Saudi Arabia had freed more than a dozen Houthi detainees ahead of a wider prisoner release agreed upon by the warring sides. The deal was brokered by Oman and will include future releases of more Houthi prisoners in an effort to normalize political and economic relations in the region.[327]
Iraqi militias
editVarious Iraqi groups, many of them as part of the Popular Mobilization Forces, have been described as Iranian proxies.[328][329][330]
During the Iraqi insurgency, Iran aided Shi'ite groups such as the Mahdi army while private Saudi citizens and the Saudi government aided anti-Iran and Sunni militias.[331] Saudi Arabia supported the 2012–2013 Iraqi protests, and the 2019–2021 Iraqi protests,[332] in which protesters protested against Shi'ite prime ministers Nouri al-Maliki and Adil Abdul-Mahdi, respectively.
The Popular Mobilization Forces rose to prominence in 2014 when Shia groups banded together during the Iraq-ISIL War. The PMF, aided by Iran and Syria and supported internally by al-Maliki and Haider al-Abadi, defeated ISIL internally by December 2017, however, refused to disarm, and waged attacks against American forces in Syria and Iraq. These groups also supported other 'Islamic Resistance Movements' such as Hezbollah,[333][291] Hamas, Al-Mukhtar Brigades, the Houthi movement,[334] the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and Hezbollah Al-Hejaz,[335] as part of the Axis of Resistance. The PMF also engaged in the 2019–2021 Persian Gulf crisis against CJTF-OIR.
Bahraini militias
editIran and its allies have backed multiple Shia groups in Bahrain. These opposition groups include:
- Al-Ashtar Brigades
- Al-Mukhtar Brigades
- Waad Allah Brigades
- Saraya Thair Allah
- Popular Resistance Brigades
- February 14 Youth Coalition
- Other minor groups
These groups fight the Bahraini government in order to overthrow the House of Khalifa. These groups are backed by Iran and Kata'ib Hezbollah financially, militarily, verbally, and ideologically.[336][337][338] These groups, in turn, support Iran and the Axis of Resistance in conflicts in Syria, Palestine, and Iraq. Exceptionally, the February 14 Youth Coalition, founded during the 2011 Bahraini uprising, became a paramilitary group during the Shia insurgency.[339]
Saudi Arabian supporters and proxies
editGulf Cooperation Council
editThe Gulf Cooperation Council, an alliance of Sunni Arab States of the Gulf region including Saudi Arabia, has often been described as a Saudi headed alliance to counter Iran, which engaged pro-Saudi interests in Bahrain.[340]
Bahrain
editBahrain is a major ally to Saudi interests, and a major member of the Gulf Cooperation Council. Bahrain is a member of the Saudi coalition against the Houthis. However, Bahrain's population is somewhere between 70 and 85% Shia, and has led to protests, of which, the most notable was the 2011 protests, which were suppressed by the Peninsular Shield Force.[341][342]
Iran has been accused of supporting militant groups in the insurgency in Bahrain, especially the Al-Ashtar Brigades.[343] Iran also formerly supported the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain in attempting to overthrow the Bahraini monarchy, as such in 1981.[344]
Bahrain has also historically on the Saudi side, as it sent weapons to Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War,[345] aided the Syrian opposition,[346] sent troops to the Saudi Arabian–led coalition in Yemen,[347] severed ties with Iran in the aftermath of the 2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran,[348] and signed the Abraham Accords in 2020 with Israel.[349]
Kuwait
editKuwait is a strategic ally to Saudi interests in the Gulf area. Kuwait has involved itself in the Yemeni civil war as part of the Saudi coalition,[350] along with formerly supporting the Syrian opposition.[351]
United Arab Emirates
editThe U.A.E and Saudi Arabia are strategic allies, as both see Iran as a common enemy.[352][353]
The U.A.E has been a major contributor to the Saudi Arabian–led coalition in Yemen,[354] has supported the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, and joined up with Saudi Arabia and Egypt to support the Libyan National Army and its leader Khalifa Haftar.[355][356]
Kurdish insurgents
editSaudi Arabia has allegedly provided support to the Kurdish militants within the KDPI, PAK, and PJAK through its consulate in Erbil, the capital of the Kurdistan Regional Government in Iraqi Kurdistan.[357] Saudi Arabia and the UAE has also supported the Kurdish-led Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, as part of CJTF-OIR.[358] Saudi Arabia also support Iraqi Kurdistan against Iraq and Iran.[359][360]
Albania
editDue to Albania's decision to welcome the MEK to take refuge in the country, tensions between Iran and Albania increased. Since 2018, Albania has accused Iran of hounding Iranian dissidents and has expelled several Iranian diplomats.[361][362][363] In January 2020, following the death of Qasem Soleimani, the Iranian government lashed out at Albania for hosting MEK members, and Iran has increased cyberattacks and agent hunting on Iranian dissidents against Albania.[364] Saudi Arabia, in response, announced its support for Albania in its efforts against Iran.[365]
Jaish ul-Adl
editThe rebel group Jaish ul-Adl, active in the Sistan and Baluchestan region of Iran, is accused by Iranian authorities of receiving Saudi and American support.[42][366]
Israel
editThe speaker of Iran's parliament, Ali Larijani, stated that Saudi Arabia gave "strategic" intelligence information to Israel during the 2006 Lebanon War.[367] In May 2018, Israeli defense minister Avigdor Lieberman supported greater discussion between Israel, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states, stating "It's time for the Middle East to [...] have an axis of moderate countries," opposed to the network of Iranian allies and proxies.[218] As of 2018, several sources described alleged intelligence ties between Saudi Arabia and Israel as a "covert alliance", with a joint interest to counter Iran in the region.[368] The New York Times remarked that such cooperation was made more difficult by controversy over Israel's attitude towards Palestinians.[369][370][371]
Israel and Saudi Arabia are both part of the Middle East Air Defense Alliance (MEAD).[249]
United States
editThe United States and Saudi Arabia have a strategic relationship that dates back to 1947.[372]
When the Iranian Revolution occurred, revolutionaries began to support other uprisings and rebellions throughout the Muslim world, including in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Iran used this policy to undermine their sovereignty while fighting in proxy warfare.[373] This caused Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf allies to turn to the U.S. for support.
The U.S., Saudi Arabia, and the GCC jointly backed Iraq under Saddam Hussein during the Iran–Iraq War and the U.S. and Iran directly attacked each other during the Tanker War.[374]
The U.S. and Iran again opened in mistrust during the Iraq War, with the U.S. and the GCC accusing Iran of funding and militarizing its proxies and Shia groups within Iraq.[375][376][377][378] The highest point of mutual distrust happened in 2005 after details of Iran's nuclear program were leaked, and sanctions by the UN were put in place.[379] The sanctions were put in place until 2015, when the JCPOA was implemented.
Iran and U.S. have also been embroiled in tensions due to the wars in Syria,[380][381][382] Afghanistan,[383] Iraq,[384] and disputes surrounding the Strait of Hormuz.[385] In the 2011–2012 Strait of Hormuz dispute, Iran threatened to close Hormuz, however, was forced to back down after the EU placed sanctions.[386]
The U.S. and Iran were brought to the brink of war during the 2019–2021 Persian Gulf crisis, when the U.S. assassinated Qasem Soleimani and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, leaders of the Quds Force and the Popular Mobilization Forces, respectively. This was after the December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria and the Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad, and Iran retaliated by bombing Al Asad Airbase in Iraq.[387]
U.S.-Saudi relations have deteriorated due to the Yemeni civil war and Syrian civil war. Saudi Arabia formerly supported the Al-Nusra Front, an Al-Qaeda affiliate in Syria.[388] Saudi Arabia has also been involved in war crimes in Yemen due to civilian airstrikes and a humanitarian blockade.[389] The U.S. supported the Saudi Arabian–led invasion until 2022, when Joe Biden repealed support for it and halted arm sales to Saudi Arabia and the U.A.E.[390]
US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo denounced the attacks on the Saudi oil industry, on 14 September 2019, as an "act of war". President Donald Trump called for an increase in sanctions against Iran opposing the strikes.[391] President Trump approved the deployment of additional U.S. troops to Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates following the attack on Saudi oil facilities that the United States blamed on Iran.[392]
Jordan
editJordan has historically been on the Saudi bloc despite its slight rivalry. Jordan and Iran have sour relations with each other.[393]
Other involved parties
editTurkey
editTurkey has long seen Iran's expansions as threats but also perceived Saudi Arabia's influence with a similar reception, and is seeking to build itself as an alternative replacement to both Saudi and Iranian influences, to a degree.[394]
However, the growing Turkish military, political, and economic expansions have caused some concern on the Saudi and Iranian sides. Iran considers Turkish military adventurism in Syria and its growing encounter against Iran in the Levant and Iraq as a challenge, not to mention its good relationship with Azerbaijan, which is very antagonistic to Iran. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia has also begun a systematic campaign to rewrite history, changing the Ottoman Caliphate into the occupier of Arabia; while it has also partially financed other megaprojects to counter the growing Turkish presence in Qatar, Sudan, Maghreb, Somalia, Kuwait, and Oman.[395]
Qatar
editQatar–Saudi Arabia relations have been strained since the beginning of the Arab Spring.[396] Qatar has been a focus of controversy in the Saudi-Iranian rivalry due to Saudi Arabia's longstanding concern about the country's relationship with Iran and Iranian-backed militant groups.[397]
In June 2017, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Egypt, the Maldives, Mauritania, Sudan, Senegal, Djibouti, Comoros, Jordan, the Tobruk-based Libyan government, and the Hadi-led Yemeni government severed diplomatic relations with Qatar and blocked their airspace and sea routes, in addition to Saudi Arabia blocking the only land crossing. The reasons cited were Qatar's relations with Iran, Al-Jazeera's coverage of other GCC states and Egypt, and Qatar's alleged support of Islamist groups.[398][399] Qatar was also expelled from the anti-Houthi coalition.[400] Qatar's defense minister Khalid bin Mohammed Al Attiyah called the blockade akin to a bloodless declaration of war, and Qatar's finance minister Ali Sharif Al Emadi stated that Qatar was rich enough to withstand the blockade.[401][402] As of 2020, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Egypt have maintained the blockade, whereas all other countries mentioned above had rebuilt their relations with Qatar. The blockade ended in 2021 when the four countries and Qatar agreed to restore relations.[403]
The bloc sought a guarantee that Qatar will in the future align in all matters with other Gulf states, discuss all of its decisions with them, and provide regular reports on its activity (monthly for the first year, quarterly for the second, and annually for the following ten years). They also demanded the deportation of all political refugees who live in Qatar to their countries of origin, freezing their assets, providing any desired information about their residency, movements, and finances, and revoking their Qatari citizenship if naturalized. They also demanded that Qatar be forbidden from granting citizenship to any additional fugitives.[404][405] Upon Qatar's rejection of these demands, the countries involved announced that the blockade would remain in place until Qatar changed its policies.[406][407] On 24 August 2017, Qatar announced that they would restore full diplomatic relations with Iran.[408]
Saudi Arabia together with the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Egypt and Bahrain, restored bilateral relations with Qatar on January 5, 2021. Diplomatic and trade ties were severed and a land, sea and air blocked on Qatar were imposed in June 2017.[409]
Qatar also has a history of funding the Houthi movement, the Muslim Brotherhood, Hezbollah,[410][281] the Al-Ashtar Brigades,[411] and al-Qaeda.[412][413]
Russia
editRussia has been aligned with Iran and Syria for years. It intervened in Syria to provide support for the Assad government and to target rebel groups, working together with Iran and using Iranian air bases to stage air strikes.[414] It also joined Iran, Iraq, and Syria in forming a joint intelligence-sharing coalition as part of the fight against ISIL.[415] The alliance coincided with the US-led coalition created a year earlier to fight ISIL. The competing military actions were seen as part of a larger proxy conflict between the United States and Russia.[416][417][418] However, Russia's tie with Saudi Arabia has become increasingly warmed since 2010s despite numerous differences, thus sometimes affected Iran's stance on relations with Russia.[419]
In the past, Saudi Arabia backed Chechen and Dagestani fighters as well as Arab Mujahedeen in the North Caucasus during the First and Second Chechen Civil Wars in the 1990s, in which Russia has fought against them.[420] In recent years however, Saudi Arabia has shifted its diplomacy to become friendlier to Russia, with King Salman became the first Saudi head of state to visit Russia, heralding possible political change.[421] Since then, Saudi Arabia and Russia have started to support each other in various conflicts in Syria and Libya, with Saudi Arabia supported Russian intervention in Syria, while Russia and Saudi Arabia have together backed Khalifa Haftar's forces in Libya.[422][423] In addition, Saudi Arabia and Russia are also becoming more antagonistic to Iranian ambitions in the Middle East, as revealed by their secret cooperation alongside Israel and Jordan against Iran.[424]
Likewise, since late 2010s, sign of Iranian–Russian friction emerged, following Iran's attempt to turn Bashar al-Assad to align with the Islamist ideology of the Iranian regime which opposed to Russia's desire for a secular state.[425] Russia's attitude toward Iran is also becoming more negative due to Iranian desire to control the Middle East, resulting in growing cooperation with Saudi Arabia.[424]
Oman
editOman is a member of the GCC and thus, maintains a close relationship with Saudi Arabia. However, unlike the majority of GCC countries, Oman does not perceive Iran as a threat. Oman has long promoted itself as the main stabilizing force amidst the intensified Iranian–Saudi conflict and often prefers a diplomatic solution to end the proxy wars.[426] However, it is alleged of Houthi support and Iranian arms smuggling.[34][35]
Pakistan
editPakistan is a major partner of Saudi Arabia, but is also a neighbor of Iran, sharing historical ties as well. Prior to 1979, the three countries formed a moderate relationship and acted as responsible Muslim states. However, since 1979, Pakistan has fallen into sectarian discord due to growing attempt by Iran and Saudi Arabia to spread influence to the country, with Pakistan having a balance of Sunni and Shi'a Muslims.[427]
Pakistan's relations with Saudi Arabia has been historically strong, and often Pakistan has feared Iran is trying to recruit its large Shi'a population to serve for Iran's military adventures, given by increasing number of vanishing Shi'as in Pakistan.[428] Its link with Iran is also marred with a number of problems regarding not just Shia issue, but also due to conflict in Afghanistan, with Iran-backed proxies have fought against Pakistan and its ally Taliban, further strengthens Pakistan's relations with Saudi Arabia.[429] However, Pakistan has refrained from criticizing Iran, but rather seeks to preserve the relations, given its long historical relationship with Iran. Pakistan has backed Iran on its effort to maintain border security in the restive Balochistan region,[430] and have cooperated against the Soviets in the 1980s.[431]
Pakistan prefers to remain neutral in Saudi-Iran rivalry. It remained neutral during the 2017 Qatar-Gulf crisis.[432][433][434] In 2019, Pakistani prime minister Imran Khan, during a visit to Tehran, said that he was trying promote talks between Iran and Saudi Arabia to defuse the tension between the two countries.[435]
Involvement in regional conflicts
editSyrian Civil War
editSyria has been a major theater in the proxy conflict throughout its ongoing civil war, which began in 2011. Iran and the GCC states have provided varying degrees of military and financial support to opposing sides, with Iran backing the government and Saudi Arabia supporting rebel militants. Syria is an important part of Iran's sphere of influence, and the government under Bashar al-Assad has long been a major ally. During the early stages of the Arab Spring, Supreme Leader Khamenei initially expressed support for the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, characterizing them as an "Islamic awakening" akin to its own revolution in 1979. When protests broke out in Syria, Iran changed its position and condemned them, comparing the uprising to its own presidential election protests in 2009 and accusing the United States and Israel of being behind the unrest.[436]
The war threatens Iran's position, and Saudi Arabia and its allies have sided with Sunni rebels in part to weaken Iran. For years Iranian forces have been involved on the ground, with soldiers in Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps facing heavy casualties.[437] In 2014, with no end in sight to the conflict, Iran increased its ground support for the Syrian Army, providing elite forces, intelligence gathering, and training. Iran also backs pro-Assad Hezbollah fighters.[438] Although Iran and Saudi Arabia agreed in 2015 to participate in peace talks in Vienna in participation with United States Secretary of State John Kerry and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov, the talks ultimately failed.[439]
Saudi Arabia countered Russia's intervention in Syria by increasing its support for the rebels and supplying American-made anti-tank TOW missiles, a move which slowed initial progress made by Russian and Syrian forces.[440]
Yemeni civil war
edit
Yemen has been called one of the major fronts in the conflict as a result of the revolution and subsequent civil war.[441][442] Yemen had for years been within the Saudi sphere of influence. The decade-long Houthi insurgency in Yemen stoked tensions with Iran, with accusations of covert support for the rebels. A 2015 UN report alleged that Iran provided the Houthi rebels with money, training, and arms shipments beginning in 2009.[443] However, the degree of support has been subject to debate, and accusations of greater involvement have been denied by Iran.[444][445][446] The 2014–2015 coup d'état was viewed by Saudi leadership as an immediate threat, and as an opportunity for Iran to gain a foothold in the region. In March 2015, a Saudi-led coalition of Arab states, including all GCC members except Oman, intervened and launched airstrikes and a ground offensive in the country, declaring the entire Saada Governorate a military target and imposing a naval blockade.[447]
The United States intervened in October 2016 after missiles were fired at a US warship, which was in place to protect oil shipments along the sea lane passing through the Mandeb Strait. The US blamed the rebels and responded by targeting radar sites with missile strikes along the Red Sea coast. In response, rebels called the strikes evidence of American support for the Saudi campaign.[448][449]
War in Iraq
editWhile the majority of Muslims in Iraq are Shia, the country has been ruled for decades by Sunni-dominated governments under the Ottoman Empire, the British-installed Hashemites, and the Ba'athists. Under the rule of Saddam Hussein, Iraq was hostile to both Iran and Saudi Arabia and acted as a counterbalancing regional power. The American-led invasion in 2003 caused a power vacuum in the region. With the antagonistic Ba'athist regime removed, Iran sought a more friendly Shia-dominated government and supported sympathetic rebel factions as part of an effort to undermine the coalition, which Iran feared would install a government hostile to its interests.[450]
Saudi Arabia remained more passive during the occupation of Iraq, taking caution to preserve its relations with the United States by avoiding any direct support of Sunni insurgent groups. Riyadh supported the Bush administration's commitment to stay in the country, as it limited Iran's influence.[451] The edicts issued in May 2003 by Coalition Provisional Authority Administrator Paul Bremer to exclude members of the Ba'ath Party from the new Iraqi government and to disband the Iraqi Army undermined the occupation effort. The orders empowered various insurgent factions and weakened the new government's functional capabilities, leaving Iraq vulnerable to future instability.[452]
Following the United States withdrawal from Iraq in December 2011, the country drifted further into Iran's sphere of influence. The instability that resulted from the Iraqi Civil War and the rise of ISIL threatened the existence of the Iraqi regime and led to an Iranian intervention in 2014. Iran mobilized Shia militia groups to halt and ultimately push back the advancing Sunni insurgency,[453] though the resurgence of ISIL in Iraq remains more than a possibility.[454]
The Iraqi government remains particularly influenced by Iran, and consults with it on most matters.[455] As of 2018 Iran has become Iraq's top trading partner, with an annual turnover of approximately US$12 billion compared to the US$6 billion in trade between Iraq and Saudi Arabia. In addition to fostering economic ties, Tehran furthered its influence by aiding the Iraqi government in its fight against the push for independence in Iraqi Kurdistan, which is mainly Sunni.[456] Saudi Arabia has responded by strengthening its ties to the Kurdistan Regional Government, seeing it as a barrier to the expansion of Iranian influence in the region, while also adopting a soft power approach to improve relations with the Iraqi government.[359][360]
Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, former Ba'athist official and leader of the Naqshbandi Army insurgent group, has repeatedly praised Saudi efforts to constrain Iranian clout in Iraq.[52][53]
Recently, Saudi Arabia has developed a close relationship with Shia cleric Muqtada al-Sadr, the leader of the Sadrist Movement and the Peace Companies militia as well as a critic of both U.S. and Iranian involvement.[457]
Bahraini uprising
edit
Saudi Arabia and Iran have sought to extend their influence in Bahrain for decades. While the majority of Muslims in Bahrain are Shia, the country is ruled by the Sunni Al Khalifa family – who are widely viewed as being subservient to the Saudi government. Iran claimed sovereignty over Bahrain until 1970, when Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi abandoned claims after negotiations with the United Kingdom.[458] The Iranian Revolution led to resumed interest in Bahraini affairs. In 1981, the front organization Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain led a failed coup attempt to install a Shia theocratic regime led by Hadi al-Modarresi. Since then, the government has accused Iran of supporting terrorist plots within its borders.[459]
Sunni states have long feared that Iran might stir up unrest among regional Shia minority populations, especially in Bahrain. Bahrain government's stability depends heavily on Saudi support. The island is connected to Saudi Arabia by the 25 kilometer King Fahd Causeway, and its proximity to Saudi Arabia's oil-rich, the Saudi Shia minority in Eastern Province is viewed by Riyadh as a security concern. Any political gains by the Shia in Bahrain are seen by the Saudis as gains for Iran.[460]
In response to the Arab Spring in 2011, the GCC governments sought to maintain their power through social reform, economic handouts, and violent repression. Member states also distributed a share of their combined oil wealth to Bahrain and Oman to maintain stability. Saudi-led GCC forces quickly intervened in support of the government of Bahraini to put down the anti-government uprising in Bahrain.
The Bahraini government publicly blamed Iran for the protests, but an independent commission established by King Hamad rejected the claim, instead highlighting human rights abuses committed in the crackdown.[461][95] The protests, along with the Iran nuclear deal, strained Bahrain's relationship with the United States. Bahrain has sought closer ties with Russia as a result, but this has been limited due to Saudi Arabia's alliance with the US.[462]
Following the onset of the Arab Winter, Bahrain accused Iran of orchestrating several domestic incidents as part of a campaign to destabilize the country. Tehran denied all allegations and accused the government of Bahrain of blaming its own internal problems on Iran after every incident.[205] In August 2015, authorities in Bahrain arrested five suspects over a bombing in Sitra. Officials linked the attacks to the Revolutionary Guard and Hezbollah, although Iran denied any involvement.[463] In January 2016, Bahrain joined Saudi Arabia in cutting diplomatic ties with Tehran following the attacks on Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran.[464] In November 2017, Bahrain called an explosion on its main oil pipeline "terrorist sabotage" linked to Iran, drawing a rebuke from Tehran. Saudi Arabia also referred to the incident as an "attack on the pipeline".[205]
Lebanese politics
editIn 2008, Saudi Arabia proposed creating an Arab force backed by US and NATO air and sea power to intervene in Lebanon and destroy Iranian-backed Hezbollah, according to a leaked US diplomatic cable. According to the cable Saudi argued that a Hezbollah victory against the Siniora government "combined with Iranian actions in Iraq and on the Palestinian front would be a disaster for the US and the entire region".
In February 2016 Saudi Arabia banned their citizens from visiting Lebanon and suspended military aid due to possible Iranian influence and Lebanon's refusal to condemn the attack on Saudi embassy.[465][466] Furthermore, Bahrain, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates advised all their citizens not to travel to Lebanon and urged them to leave immediately.[467]
Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Hariri resigned on 4 November 2017. The situation was seen as a power play by Saudi Arabia to increase its influence in Lebanon and counterbalance Iran's victories in Iraq and Syria.[468][469] In a televised speech from Saudi Arabia, Hariri criticized Hezbollah and blamed Iran for causing "disorder and destruction" in Lebanon. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah responded by accusing Hariri of resigning on Riyadh's orders.[470]
War in Afghanistan
editThe rivalry has contributed to the ongoing instability in Afghanistan. Afghanistan shares ties with Iran through the Persian language, but is strategically important to Saudi Arabia. After the Cold War, Saudi policy shifted from fighting the spread of communism to containing Iranian influence in South and Central Asia.[113]
Saudi Arabia was one of three countries to officially recognize the Sunni Taliban government in 1996, along with its allies Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates. During the Afghan Civil War, Iran and Saudi Arabia supported opposing militant factions. Iran assisted the Shia Hezb-e Wahdat, while Saudi Arabia provided financial support to the Wahhabist Ittihad-e Islami.[471]
In 2001, the invasion of Afghanistan and the removal of the Taliban in the wake of the September 11 attacks benefited Iran, which had previously been on the brink of war with the group. The regime change removed Iran's primary threat along its eastern borders, and the removal of Saddam Hussein two years later further bolstered its position, allowing it to refocus its efforts on other areas, especially Syria and Yemen.[472] In the ensuing years, Iran sought to expand its influence over Afghanistan. It provided limited support to the Taliban as a potential means of increasing leverage with the Afghan central government and creating a deterrent to conflict with the United States, although the support waned amid growing backlash in Afghanistan against perceived Iranian interference.[473] Iran has also sought to expand soft influence by building pro-Iranian schools, mosques, and media centers, and by maintaining close ties with Afghanistan's Tajik and Hazara populations.[473] Originally Iran support the central government against the Taliban, which was still funded by Saudi Arabia in the months following 9/11.[474][475] However, due to American presence, Iran resorted to funding the Taliban,[476] while Saudi Arabia helped the Afghan Government in reconstruction.[477]
Pakistani sectarian violence
editSince the 1980s, Pakistan has been dealing with sporadic sectarian conflict, and the Muslim population is predominantly Sunni with about 10–15% Shia adherents.[478] The Saudi Arabia enjoys a strong public support from the country's conservative sphere and has occupied a unique statue in Pakistan's foreign policy stature.
Pakistan is economically dependent on oil imports from Saudi Arabia, a key strategic ally but shares some historical cultural ties with Iran. The foreign employees Saudi oil industry from Pakistan plays a crucial role in Pakistan's economic stability who sends large remittances back home. The largest amount comes from the 1.5 million Pakistanis working in Saudi Arabia who sent home about US$5.5 billion in remittances in 2017.[479] There are also allegations of Saudi Arabia's financial grants to Pakistan's national laboratories that built Pakistan's nuclear weapons program.[480] The Saudi monarchy also views the Balochistan province of Pakistan as a potential means of stirring ethnic unrest in neighboring Iran, with its province of Sistan and Baluchestan.[481]
In February 2018, Saudi Arabia, acting on behalf of the GCC, joined China and Turkey in opposing a US-led initiative to place Pakistan on an international terror-financing watch list through the Financial Action Task Force. This move came days after Prime Minister Imran Khan went onto to deploy ~1,000 military troops to the Gulf kingdoms for what it described as an "advisory mission".[479]
At home, the Pakistani lawmakers have been levelling accusations at Iran of influencing Pakistani Shias to act as proxies to further Iranian interests in Pakistan. The Iranian government has been suspected of militarizing Shias amongst Pakistan's local population and promoting sectarian sentiments to further achieve its goals.[482] According to the Pakistani intelligence assessments, many Pakistani Shias have also been suspected of traveling to parts of the Middle East including Syria and Lebanon to fight on behalf of the Iranian government.[483][484][485]
Nigerian Sectarianism
editThe Islamic Movement of Nigeria (IMN), a Shiite religious and political organisation founded and headed by Sheikh Ibrahim Zakzaki, constitutes another proxy in the conflict. It constitutes another asset that could enable Iran in disrupting Sunni States in West Africa.[278] Thus, Saudi Arabia by supporting the Nigerian government in its suppressing efforts, and by providing support to rival Sunni groups such as Izala and not seriously condemning Boko Haram's actions, aims to limit its influence and growth in the region.[19]
Israeli–Palestinian conflict
editBoth Iran and Saudi Arabia have employed different methods to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Iran has preferred a confrontational approach, arming and financing proxies such as Hamas and Hezbollah (and lesser proxies such as PIJ and PFLP) in its ongoing proxy conflict with Israel. Saudi Arabia has taken a diplomatic approach, such as backing Fatah's negotiations with Israel and the Arab Peace Initiative announced in 2002 and re-endorsed in 2007 and 2013 to bring about a comprehensive peace accord with Israel.[486] Saudi Arabia strengthened ties with Israel in 2018 when Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman stated that Israelis have a right to their own land.[487]
Libyan Crisis
editIran and Saudi Arabia have waged a proxy war in Libya, with Saudi Arabia,[488] along with the U.A.E,[489] Egypt, and Sudan, have provided support to the Libyan National Army, and its leader warlord Khalifa Haftar. Iran, Qatar, and Turkey support the Government of National Accord and other Islamist forces in the country.[490][491][492][493] According to the UN, Iran also sent weapons to the GNA and its affiliates.[494]
Nuclear programs of Iran and Saudi Arabia
editAlthough both Iran and Saudi Arabia signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in 1970 and 1988 respectively, a potential nuclear arms race has been a concern for years. Both governments claim that their programs are for peaceful purposes, but foreign governments and organizations have accused both of taking steps to obtain nuclear weapons capabilities.
Iran's ongoing nuclear program began in the 1950s under the Shah in cooperation with the United States as part of the Atoms for Peace program. The cooperation continued until the Iranian Revolution in 1979.[495] Sanctions have been in place since then, and were expanded in 2006 with the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1737 and Resolution 1696 in response to Iran's uranium enrichment program.
Saudi Arabia has considered several options in response to the Iranian program: acquiring its own nuclear capability as a deterrent, entering into an alliance with an existing nuclear power, or pursuing a regional nuclear-weapon-free zone agreement.[496] It is believed that Saudi Arabia has been a major financier of Pakistan's integrated nuclear program since 1974, a project begun under former Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. In 2003 it was reported that Saudi Arabia had taken the "strategic decision" to acquire "off-the-shelf" atomic weapons from Pakistan, according to senior American officials.[497] In 2003, The Washington Times reported that Pakistan and Saudi Arabia had entered a secret agreement on nuclear cooperation to provide the Saudis with nuclear weapons technology in return for access to cheap oil for Pakistan.[citation needed]
Following several years of negotiations for a nuclear deal framework between Iran and the P5+1 countries, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was signed in 2015. The deal raised concerns for Saudi Arabia, which saw it as a step toward reducing Iran's international isolation and potentially exacerbating the proxy conflict.[498] However, Riyadh did not publicly denounce the deal at the time as Israel did.[499] In 2018, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman stated that Saudi Arabia would move to obtain nuclear weapons if Iran's program is successful.[500] He led a delegation to the United States to meet with Trump administration officials to discuss mutual concerns, including a potential US withdrawal from the Iran nuclear agreement.[214] In April 2018, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu gave a televised speech accusing Iran of covertly continuing the AMAD Project in violation of the JCPOA.[501]
President Trump announced on 8 May 2018 that the United States would withdraw from the JCPOA and reinstate previous sanctions against Iran in addition to imposing new sanctions.[216] In anticipation of the decision, Iranian President Rouhani stated that Iran would remain in the deal if the remaining parties did the same, but was otherwise vague on how the country would respond to the US decision.[502]
Iran–Saudi Arabia rapprochement
editEarlier negotiations
editSince April 2021, Iraq has hosted five rounds of direct talks between the two nations, which cut diplomatic ties in 2016. The 6th round of talks on a ministerial level stalled, but after a meeting in Amman, Jordan, in December 2022, Iran's Hossein Amirabdollahian and Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud signaled that both countries would be "open to more dialogue". Despite increased rhetoric by Iran against Saudi Arabia, the Saudis support efforts to revive the stalled Iran nuclear deal. However, the Saudi minister threatened to nullify the negotiations and following agreement if Iran were to obtain nuclear weapons.[503][504] In January 2023, the Saudi foreign ministers Al Saud speaking at a panel at the World Economic Forum in Davos reiterated that "Riyadh is trying to find a dialog with Iran". He welcomed the decision by Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states to focus on their economies "towards joint prosperity".[505]
March 2023 restoration of relations
editThe two countries announced the resumption of relations on 10 March 2023, following a deal brokered by China.[506] The agreement was signed by secretary of the Supreme National Security Council of Iran Ali Shamkhahni and Saudi Arabian national security advisor Musaed Al-Aiban.[507] A joint statement announced that their embassies would re-open within two months.[506] The United Nations Secretary General, Hezbollah, Oman, UAE, Egypt,[508] Pakistan,[509] Indonesia[510] and Malaysia[511] welcomed the reapproachment, while two former Israeli Prime Ministers criticized it.[512][513]
Under the deal, the countries would restore agreements related to security, trade, and culture.[514][515] Under the agreement both countries agreed to respect the other's sovereignty and not interfere in the internal affairs of the other.[512] The rapprochement deal was concluded after Ali Khamenei's offer to end Iran's military support to Houthi militants in Yemen and abide by the UN arms embargo, an agreement that pressurizes the Houthis towards a negotiated settlement with the Yemeni government. Saudi and US officials remarked that subsequent Iranian commitments towards de-escalating Yemeni conflict were a "litmus test" for the survival of Chinese-brokered reconciliation deal.[125][516][126]
On 20 March 2023, Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi has "welcomed" an invitation from Saudi Arabia's King Salman to visit the kingdom, according to France24. Earlier Iran's top security official Ali Shamkhani also held talks with Emirati President Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan in Abu Dhabi, which paved the way for more security in the region.[517]
See also
edit
.svg){kind=small}
References
edit- ^ Daoud, David (March 2015). "Meet the Proxies: How Iran Spreads Its Empire through Terrorist Militias". The Tower Magazine. No. 24. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
- ^ Hashim, Ahmed Salah (29 January 2016), "Saudi-Iranian Rivalry and Conflict: Shia Province as Casus Belli?" (PDF), RSIS Commentary (22), S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, retrieved 18 August 2016
- ^ Abedin, Mahan (26 October 2006). "Saudi Shi'ites: New light on an old divide". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
- ^ Mashal, Mujib; Faizi, Fatima (11 November 2017). "Iran Sent Them to Syria. Now Afghan Fighters Are a Worry at Home". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- ^ "Exclusive: Iran Steps up Support for Houthis in Yemen's War – Sources". U.S. News & World Report. 21 March 2017. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
- ^ "Will Saudi Arabia become a new drone battleground?". Deutsche Welle.
An Iraqi militia has claimed responsibility for two suicide drones fired at Riyadh earlier this week — and vowed to do it again. The new group suggested Saudis should be sleeping with one eye open from now on.
- ^ "Iran's Guards Renew Pledge To Support Iraqi Shiite Militias". 9 August 2021.
- ^ Friedman, George (19 March 2018) The Role of Militias in Iran's Strategy for Iraq Geopolitical Futures Retrieved on 12 August 2021
- ^ Wess, Caleb (23 February 2018). "Bahraini militant group adopts IRGC branding".
At the same time, Saraya al Ashtar reaffirmed its loyalty to the Islamic Republic of Iran. "We believe that the commander and ruler of the Islamic religion is the line of the two imams, Khomeini and Khamenei, which is in the original Muhammad approach in confronting the oppressors and fighting back against the tyrants," the group's statement reads.
- ^ "Iran's Islamist Proxies in the Middle East". Wilson Center. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
- ^ Hezbollah's Hassan Nasrallah accuses Saudi Arabia of 'terrorism' "Hassan Nasrallah accuses Saudi Arabia of spreading ISIL ideology across the region amid rising political tensions". Al Jazeera.
- ^ Sapir, Teddy (6 February 2022). "Hezbollah and Saudi Arabia – a routine of clashes". Alma, Research and Education Centre.
During the Syrian civil war, the conflict between Saudi Arabia and Hezbollah escalated due to the Saudi-Iranian rivalry.
- ^ a b "Exclusive: Hamas Official Discusses Decline of Iranian Support". موقع الدكتور عدنان ابو عامر. Archived from the original on 26 January 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
- ^ What is behind the Saudi campaign against Hamas? "By launching arrests of its supporters and cutting off financial flows to Gaza, Riyadh aims to corner Hamas."
- ^ "The Huseynyun: Iran's new IRGC-backed movement in Azerbaijan". 9 October 2021.
- ^ Fouad, Ahmed. "Iran's relationship with Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood comes under renewed scrutiny". The Arab Weekly.
The Muslim Brotherhood may not be the only extremist Sunni group in Egypt supported by IRGC.
- ^ Iran and Muslim Brotherhood: A Bizarre Alliance of Two Rival Ideologies STRAFASIA Retrieved 13 May 2022.
- ^ "Kashmir – The New Battlefield For Saudi-Iran Proxy War – Israel Media Reports". 22 July 2019. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
- ^ a b c Bahi, Riham (2018). "Iran-Saudi Rivalry in Africa: Implications for Regional Stability". Middle East Policy. 25 (4): 33. doi:10.1111/mepo.12374. S2CID 159397471.
- ^ Tangaza, Haruna Shehu (5 August 2019). "Islamic Movement in Nigeria: The Iranian-inspired Shia group". BBC News.
Nigeria's government has taken the controversial decision to ban a pro-Iranian Shia group, accusing it of unleashing violence and being an "enemy of the state".
- ^ War by Proxy CSIS
- ^ Berti, Benedetta; Guzansky, Yoel (October 2012). "The Syrian Crisis and the Saudi-Iranian Rivalry". Foreign Policy Research Institute. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2013.
- ^ a b Awaad, Aboubakr Fathy (1 January 2020). "Iranian Saudi rivalry over the regional role ... Syria as a model". Review of Economics and Political Science. ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print). doi:10.1108/REPS-07-2019-0094. S2CID 219777144.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia says Lebanon has declared war on it". Reuters. 6 November 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
- ^ Perry, Tom; Ghantous, Ghaida (2 November 2021). "Analysis: Lebanon is dragged back into eye of Iranian-Saudi storm". Reuters.
- ^ How Saudi Arabia pushed Iraq into the arms of Iran Lawfare
- ^ "Zarif sends warning letter to UN chief about US threats to Iran oil tankers". Irna. 17 May 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ^ "Iran Supports Maduro as the President of Venezuela". Iran International. 24 January 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
- ^ "Iran, Venezuela in "axis of unity" against U.S". Reuters. 2 July 2007.
- ^ Gokay, Bulent (9 August 2017). "In Saudi Arabia's quest to debilitate the Iranian economy, they destroyed Venezuela". The Independent. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
Venezuela is the most disastrously oil-dependent state in the world. Oil accounts for 96 per cent of exports and more than 40 per cent of government revenues
- ^ "The September 14 drone attack on Saudi oil fields: North Korea's potential role | NK News". NK News – North Korea News. 30 September 2019.
- ^ "Arab powers sever Qatar ties, citing support for militants". Reuters.
The Arab world's biggest powers cut ties with Qatar on Monday, accusing it of support for Islamist militants and Iran, and reopening a festering wound two weeks after U.S. President Donald Trump's demand for Muslim states to fight terrorism.
- ^ "Qatari Emir Calls for Promotion of Ties". Financial Tribune. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
- ^ a b Oman's dangerous double game Archived 1 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine "The sultanate, a U.S. ally, seems to be helping Tehran wage a proxy war against Saudi Arabia in Yemen."
- ^ a b "قيادي حوثي منشق أرتمى في أحضان السعودية يهاجم سلطنة عمان: مسقط العربية تحولت إلى مشهد الإيرانية!" (in Arabic). 16 August 2018.
- ^ a b "Mana'a and al-Ahmar received money from Gaddafi to shake security of KSA, Yemen". 4 September 2011. Archived from the original on 10 February 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
- ^ "Former Revolutionary Guards minister: Gaddafi supplied Iran with missiles, asked to target Saudi Arabia". Mehr News Agency.
- ^ Youssef, Fatah Al-Rahman (12 October 2014). "Omar Al-Bashir: We cannot allow Shi'ite presence in Sudan". Asharq al-Awsat. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
- ^ Martin Chulov (31 August 2017). "Victory for Assad looks increasingly likely as world loses interest in Syria". The Guardian.
- ^ Iddon, Paul (28 July 2016). "Erbil is not another front in the Saudi-Iran regional proxy war". Rudaw. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
- ^ Dehghanpisheh, Babak (4 September 2016). "To Iranian eyes, Kurdish unrest spells Saudi incitement". Reuters. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
- ^ a b Merat, Arron (28 March 2014). "Iran calls for return of abducted border guards held in Pakistan". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2014.
- ^ a b "Iran Guards' Commander Says US, Saudis Supplying Arms To Militant Groups". Radio Farda. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ Frantzman, Seth J. (20 May 2020). "Libya is now the Middle East's most important proxy war". The Spectator. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
- ^ "Libyan Civil War: Saudi Arabia & UAE Involvement". Grey Dynamics. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
- ^ Fisher, Max (19 November 2016). "How the Iranian-Saudi Proxy Struggle Tore Apart the Middle East". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
- ^ "Lebanese Hezbollah: Ahvaz crime reaction to Resistance victories". Islamic Republic News Agency. 23 September 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- ^ Rasmussen, Sune Engel (25 November 2018), "Dissidents Call for United Front Against Iran After Assassination Attempts", The Wall Street Journal, retrieved 17 July 2020
- ^ a b Karami, Arash (2 August 2016). "Were Saudis behind Abbas-MEK meeting?". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
- ^ "Iranian Kurds Return to Arms" (Analysis). Stratfor. 29 July 2016. Archived from the original on 30 July 2016. Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ "Saudis reportedly funding insurgents". The Seattle Times. 8 September 2006.
Private Saudi citizens are giving millions of dollars to Sunni insurgents in Iraq and much of the money is used to buy weapons
- ^ a b "Former Saddam aide seeks to reshape Iraq's Sunni insurgency". Reuters. 10 April 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- ^ a b "Saddam's 'king of clubs' reappears on Baath anniversary". Rudaw. 8 April 2018.
- ^ "Lebanon vote deals blow to Hezbollah, preliminary results show". Reuters.
- ^ "Factbox: What is the Lebanese Forces?". Reuters. 16 May 2022. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
- ^ Goulka, Jeremiah; Hansell, Lydia; Wilke, Elizabeth; Larson, Judith (2009). The Mujahedin-e Khalq in Iraq: a policy conundrum (PDF). RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8330-4701-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
- ^ Mousavian, Seyed Hossein (21 July 2016). "From Iran to Nice, We Must Confront All Terrorism to End Terrorism". HuffPost. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia Wants to Roll Back Iran". The National Interest. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
n July 9, Prince Turki bin Faisal, former Saudi intelligence head, unprecedentedly attended a rally for the notorious Iranian opposition group Mujahedeen Khalq (MEK) and called for the overthrow of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
- ^ "How the Trump administration got into a showdown with Iran that could lead to war". Business Insider. 25 May 2019.
- ^ "The Tension Between America and Iran, Explained". The New York Times. 16 May 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
- ^ Hitchens, Theresa (16 August 2019). "Israel Meets With UAE, Declares It's Joining Persian Gulf Coalition". Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
- ^ a b Tibon, Amir (13 February 2019). "Warsaw Summit Will Test U.S. Gamble on Israeli-Arab Pact Against Iran". Haaretz. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
- ^ "The enemy of my enemy is my friend — an alliance that may save the Middle East". The Hill. 23 August 2019. Archived from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
- ^ "Royal Navy destroyer returns from defending British shipping in Hormuz Strait". BT Group. 28 September 2019. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
- ^ a b "Jordan and Saudi Arabia draw closer". Country.eiu.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
- ^ a b Dunne, Charles W. (26 June 2019). "Saudi-Emirati-Egyptian Alliance Steering US Middle East Policy". Retrieved 4 October 2021.
- ^ a b c "Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE reiterate support for Bahrain's fiscal programme". Reuters. 20 October 2021.
- ^ "Bahrain Jails 169 For Founding 'Iran-Linked Terror Group'". RFE/RL.
- ^ "Why did Morocco cut its diplomatic ties with Iran? -". 30 May 2019.
- ^ "Diplomatic relations between Morocco and Iran sour over Western Sahara dispute". 16 July 2018.
- ^ "Yemen cuts diplomatic relations with Iran: spokesman". Xinhua. 2 October 2015. Archived from the original on 4 October 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
- ^ Now is the time for Kuwait to join the growing Anti-Iran Coalition JINSA
- ^ "Mideast tensions soar as Saudi Arabia rallies countries to cut ties with Iran". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ a b Vatanka, Alex (22 March 2012). "The Odd Couple". The Majalla. Saudi Research and Publishing Company. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ "Qatar recalls envoy to Iran after attacks on Saudi missions: State News". Reuters. 6 January 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
- ^ Joyner, Alfred (4 January 2016). "Iran vs Saudi Arabia: The Middle East cold war explained". International Business Times. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ a b Poole, Thom (20 October 2017). "Iran and Saudi Arabia's great rivalry explained". BBC News. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Bowen, Jeremy (7 July 2014). "The fearsome Iraqi militia vowing to vanquish Isis". BBC News. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
- ^ "قائد النجباء يكشف مخططات السبهان للعراق". alkawthartv.com | قناة الکوثر. Archived from the original on 5 July 2018. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
- ^ "Al-Maliki Accuses Saudi Arabia of Supporting Terrorism". AlahedNews. 22 April 2014. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- ^ Pileggi, Tamar (15 March 2016). "Iran denies top general called Saudi, not Israel, its enemy". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ "Iran Guards head calls Saudi Arabia 'terrorist state'". The Times of Israel. 4 July 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia, Zionist regime behind resignation of Lebanese PM". Mehr News Agency. 5 November 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ "State Department Terrorist Designation of Qassim Abdullah Ali Ahmed, AKA Qassim al-Muamen" (Press release). United States Department of State. 13 August 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- ^ "الولائي يدين الاعتداءات الجبانة من ال سعود على اطفال اليمن ويعلن تطوعه مرة اخرى لنصرة اهل اليمن – الحاج ابو الاء الولائي". 11 October 2018. Archived from the original on 11 October 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ "بالفيديو .. تصريح ناري لأبو مهدي المهندس حول السعودية والإمارات!". alkawthartv.com | قناة الکوثر. Archived from the original on 5 September 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
- ^ "PROFILE: New Saudi Interior Minister Prince Abdulaziz bin Saud bin Nayef". Al Arabiya English. 21 June 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ Frantzman, Seth J. (8 November 2017). "Riyadh's 'anti-Hezbollah minister'". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
- ^ تعيين المقدم عبيد فاضل الشمري بدلًا من السهيان (in Arabic). Alweeam.com.sa. 15 December 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2018.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Tawfeeq, Mohammed (27 February 2018). "Saudi Arabia replaces military commanders in late-night reshuffle". CNN. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
- ^ "BDF Commander-in-Chief meets new Joint Peninsula Shield Forces Commander". Bahrain News Agency. 21 May 2014. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
- ^ Henderson, Simon (21 February 2014). "Saudi Arabia's Domestic and Foreign Intelligence Challenges". Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ^ Lippman, Thomas W. (16 April 2014). "Saudi Intel Chief Prince Bandar Is Out, But Is He Really Out?". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 14 July 2014.
- ^ Al Saeri, Muqbil (March 2011). "A talk with Peninsula Shield force commander Mutlaq bin Salem Al Azima". Asharq Al-Awsat. Archived from the original on 29 July 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
- ^ a b Bronner, Ethan; Slackman, Michael (14 March 2011). "Saudi Troops Enter Bahrain to Help Put Down Unrest". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 March 2018.
- ^ Rubin, Jennifer (6 January 2016). "The Iran-Saudi Arabia proxy war". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ Gerges, Fawaz (15 December 2013). "Saudi Arabia and Iran must end their proxy war in Syria". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
- ^ Rogin, Josh (4 November 2015). "Iran and Saudi Arabia Clash Inside Syria Talks". Bloomberg View. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
...Iran and Saudi Arabia to discuss anything civilly, much less come to an agreement on Syria, where both sides have proxy forces in the fight.
- ^ Tisdall, Simon (25 March 2015). "Iran-Saudi proxy war in Yemen explodes into region-wide crisis". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
- ^ Mabon, Simon. "The Battle for Bahrain: Iranian-Saudi Rivalry". Middle East Policy Council. Archived from the original on 22 August 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
- ^ Ghattas, Kim (20 May 2016). "Iran-Saudi tensions simmer in Lebanon". BBC News. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
- ^ Kenyon, Peter (17 June 2017). "Qatar's Crisis With Saudi Arabia And Gulf Neighbors Has Decades-Long Roots". NPR. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ^ Rubin, Alissa J. (6 July 2016). "Iraq Before the War: A Fractured, Pent-Up Society". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
- ^ Thurston, Alex (31 October 2016). "How far does Saudi Arabia's influence go? Look at Nigeria". The Washington Post. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ a b Oladipo, Tomi (7 January 2016). "Saudi Arabia and Iran fight for Africa's loyalty". BBC News. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ "Morocco severs ties with Iran over support for West Sahara Polisario front: official". Reuters. 1 May 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2018.
- ^ El Harmouzi, Nouh. "Repercussions of the Saudi-Iranian Conflict on North Africa". The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
- ^ Ahmed, Zahid Shahab; Akbarzadeh, Shahram (16 June 2020). "Pakistan caught between Iran and Saudi Arabia". Contemporary South Asia. 28 (3): 336–350. doi:10.1080/09584935.2020.1779181. S2CID 221822752.
- ^ Shankar, Abha (6 October 2016). "The Saudi-Iran Rivalry and Sectarian Strife in South Asia". The Diplomat. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
- ^ Panda, Ankit (22 January 2016). "Why Is Pakistan Interested in Brokering Peace Between Iran and Saudi Arabia?". The Diplomat. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
- ^ Sewag, Zulqarnain (30 April 2015). "Sectarian Rise in Pakistan: Role of Saudi Arabia and Iran". South Asia Journal of Multidiciplinary Studies. 1 (3). Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2016 – via gjms.co.in.
- ^ Seerat, Rustam Ali (14 January 2016). "Iran and Saudi Arabia in Afghanistan". The Diplomat. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
- ^ a b c Mir, Haroun (6 April 2015). "Afghanistan stuck between Iran and Saudi Arabia". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
- ^ Peyrouse, Sebastien (6 April 2014). "Iran's Growing Role in Central Asia? Geopolitical, Economic and Political Profit and Loss Account". Al Jazeera Center for Studies. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
- ^ "Balkans Risks Being Caught in Crossfire Over Middle East". Balkan Insight. 24 January 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
- ^ Dorsey, James (19 February 2018). "Expanding Regional Rivalries: Saudi Arabia and Iran battle it out in Azerbaijan". International Policy Digest. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
- ^ See:
- Koelbl, Susanne; Shafy, Samiha; Zand, Bernhard (9 May 2016). "Saudia Arabia Iran and the New Middle Eastern Cold War". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 17 June 2017.
- Pollack, Kenneth M. (8 January 2016). "Fear and Loathing in Saudi Arabia". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
- Ellis, Sam (17 July 2017). "The Middle East's cold war, explained". Vox. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ a b Fathollah-Nejad, Ali (25 October 2017). "The Iranian–Saudi Hegemonic Rivalry". Belfer Center. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
- ^ Klare, Michael (1 June 2013). "Welcome to Cold War II". Tom Dispatch. RealClearWorld. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ Erickson, Amanda (20 December 2017). "What's behind the feud between Saudi Arabia and Iran? Power". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
- ^ "The 'Cold War' between Iran and Saudi Arabia is heating up. Here are 5 things you should know about it". Agence France-Presse. 12 November 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
- ^ Marcus, Jonathan (16 September 2019). "Why Saudi Arabia and Iran are bitter rivals". BBC News. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar. "Iran, Saudi Arabia hold fifth round of talks in Baghdad". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
- ^ Hafezi, Parisa; Abdallah, Nayera; Yaakoubi, Aziz El (10 March 2023). "Iran and Saudi Arabia agree to resume ties in talks brokered by China". Reuters. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
- ^ a b Nissenbaum, Dion; Said, Summer; Faucon, Benoit (16 March 2023). "Iran Agrees to Stop Arming Houthis in Yemen as Part of Pact With Saudi Arabia". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 20 March 2023.
- ^ a b "Iran agrees to stop arming Houthis in Yemen as part of deal with Saudi Arabia – Wall Street Journal report". Arab News. 16 March 2023. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023.
- ^ Mueller, Chelsi (2 May 2020). The Origins of the Arab-Iranian Conflict: Nationalism and Sovereignty in the Gulf between the World Wars. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108773881. ISBN 978-1-108-77388-1. S2CID 223975151.
- ^ https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/2016/1/25/the-arab-iranian-conflict-is-political-not-sectarian ,Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan, p411
- ^ Aydin, Mustafa (4 June 2019). Turkey's Foreign Policy in the 21st Century: A Changing Role in World Politics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-77389-8 – via Google Books.
- ^ "US fanning sedition between Iran, Arab nations: Egyptian daily". IRNA English. 16 August 2018.
- ^ Halliday, Fred (June 1996). "Arabs and Persians beyond the Geopolitics of the Gulf". Cahiers d'Études Sur la Méditerranée Orientale et le Monde Turco-Iranien (22). doi:10.4000/cemoti.143.
- ^ Halliday, F. Arabs and Persians beyond the Geopolitics of the Gulf. "The Safavis also institutionalised what was to be another central defining difference between Arabs and Persians, the predominance of Shi'ite Islam in Iran. This made formal the religious difference between Arabs and Persians that had been smouldering since the early years of Islam. In subsequent nationalist rhetoric the Iranians could be seen as shu'ûbiyyin, defectors from both Arabism and the orthodox faith, while in Khomeini's rhetoric Saddam was associated with Yazid, the Umayyad tyrant who killed Hussain at Karbala in 680AD"
- ^ Miglietta, John P. (2002). American Alliance Policy in the Middle East, 1945–1992: Iran, Israel, and Saudi Arabia. Lexington Books. p. 56. ISBN 0-7391-0304-0.
- ^ Ramazani, R.K. (1 March 1979). "Security in the Persian Gulf". Foreign Affairs. No. Spring 1979. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
- ^ Gold, Dore (2003). Hatred's Kingdom. Washington, DC: Regnery. pp. 75–6. ISBN 978-0-89526-061-1.
- ^ "The Sunni-Shia Divide". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
- ^ Amiri, Reza Ekhtiari; Ku Hasnita Binti Ku Samsu; Hassan Gholipour Fereidouni (2011). "The Hajj and Iran's Foreign Policy towards Saudi Arabia". Journal of Asian and African Studies. 46 (678): 678–690. doi:10.1177/0021909611417546. S2CID 143799946.
- ^ Jones, Toby Craig (2006). "Rebellion on the Saudi Perpihery: Modernity, Marginalization, and the Shia Uprising of 1979". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 38 (2): 213–233. doi:10.1017/S0020743806412320. S2CID 143066112.
- ^ a b c d Matthiesen, Toby (2014). The Other Saudis: Shiism, Dissent and Sectarianism. Cambridge Middle East Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 114–214. doi:10.1017/cbo9781107337732. ISBN 978-1-107-04304-6.
- ^ a b c Khoshnood, Arvin (2021). "ASMLA: An Empirical Exploration of an Ethno-Nationalist Terrorist Organization". Middle East Security and Policy Studies: 1–35.
- ^ Ward, Steven R. (2009). Immortal: a military history of Iran and its armed forces. Georgetown University. Center for Peace and Security Studies. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 230–231, 233. ISBN 978-1-58901-588-3. OCLC 646811483.
- ^ Elling, Rasmus Christian (2008). "State of Mind, State of Order: Reactions to Ethnic Unrest in the Islamic Republic of Iran". Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism. 8 (3): 486. doi:10.1111/j.1754-9469.2008.00028.x. S2CID 143472504.
- ^ "Football riots reflect discontent in Iran's predominantly Arab Khuzestan - Turkish News". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
- ^ Gibson, Bryan R. (2010). Covert Relationship: American Foreign Policy, Intelligence, and the Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988. ABC-CLIO. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-313-38610-7.
- ^ Molavi, Afshin (2005). The Soul of Iran: A Nation's Journey to Freedom (Revised ed.). England: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-393-32597-3.
- ^ Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Iran–Iraq War, 1980–1988. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-84176-371-2. OCLC 48783766.
- ^ Kinzer, Stephen (October 2008). "Inside Iran's Fury". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- ^ Bruno, Greg (13 October 2011). "State Sponsors: Iran". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 17 June 2017.
- ^ Butt, Yousaf (21 January 2015). "How Saudi Wahhabism Is the Fountainhead of Islamist Terrorism". HuffPost. Retrieved 17 June 2017.
- ^ Cockburn, Patrick (11 January 2016). "Prince Mohammed bin Salman: Naive, arrogant Saudi prince is playing with fire". The Independent. Retrieved 17 June 2017.
- ^ Gölz, "Martyrdom and Masculinity in Warring Iran. The Karbala Paradigm, the Heroic, and the Personal Dimensions of War.", Behemoth 12, no. 1 (2019): 35–51, 35.
- ^ Gaub, Florence (February 2016). "War of words: Saudi Arabia v Iran" (PDF). European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS). Retrieved 20 October 2017.
- ^ Wallace, Charles P. (3 August 1987). "Iran Asks Overthrow of Saudi Rulers Over Riots: Tehran Stand on Mecca Clash Adds to Tensions; Police Accused of Following U.S. Instructions". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
- ^ "Saudi-Iranian cold war: stirring up sectarian hostilities". Mediterranean Affairs. 17 November 2016. Archived from the original on 30 June 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
- ^ Fahim, Kareem; Kirkpatrick, David D. (14 May 2012). "Saudi Arabia Seeks Union of Monarchies in Region". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
- ^ Hammond, Andrew (17 May 2012). "Analysis: Saudi Gulf union plan stumbles as wary leaders seek detail". Reuters. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
- ^ "Turkey joins Sunni 'anti-terrorist' military coalition". Hürriyet Daily News. Agence France-Presse. 15 December 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
- ^ "What do Russia and Iran think about Saudi Arabia's coalition initiative?". Euronews. 15 December 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
- ^ Ramani, Samuel (12 September 2016). "Israel Is Strengthening Its Ties With The Gulf Monarchies". HuffPost. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Riedel, Bruce (2011). "Brezhnev in the Hejaz". The National Interest. No. September–October 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
- ^ Byman, Daniel (1 December 2011). "After the hope of the Arab Spring, the chill of an Arab Winter". The Washington Post. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
- ^ Ross, Dennis (20 June 2017). "Trump Is on a Collision Course With Iran". Politico. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
- ^ Bazzi, Mohamad (20 June 2017). "The Growing U.S.-Iran Proxy Fight in Syria". The Atlantic. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
- ^ See:
- "Bahrain FM: Muslim Brotherhood is a terrorist group". Al Jazeera. 6 July 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
- "Saudi Arabia declares Muslim Brotherhood 'terrorist group'". BBC News. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
- "Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood declared 'terrorist group'". BBC News. 25 December 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
- "Resolution of the State Duma, 2 December 2003 N 3624-III GD "on the Application of the State Duma of the Russian Federation" on the suppression of the activities of terrorist organizations on the territory of the Russian Federation" (in Russian). Consultant Plus. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- Shahine, Alaa; Carey, Glen (9 March 2014). "U.A.E. Supports Saudi Arabia Against Qatar-Backed Brotherhood". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 9 March 2014.
- ^ Gause III, F. Gregory (27 June 2017). "What the Qatar crisis shows about the Middle East". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ^ a b Al-Rasheed, Madawi (23 April 2018). "What Fuels the Saudi Rivalry With Iran?". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
- ^ Hossein Mousavian, Seyed (3 June 2016). "Saudi Arabia Is Iran's New National Security Threat". HuffPost. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Gause III, F. Gregory (July 2014). "Beyond Sectarianism: The New Middle East Cold War" (PDF). Brookings Doha Center Analysis Paper (11). Brookings Institution: 1, 3. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
- ^ Farmanfarmaian, Roxane (15 November 2012). "Redrawing the Middle East map: Iran, Syria and the new Cold War". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ Hubbard, Ben (25 September 2015). "Hajj Tragedy Inflames Schisms During a Pilgrimage Designed for Unity". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (24 September 2015). "How the deadly hajj stampede feeds into old Middle East rivalries". The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Black, Ian; Weaver, Matthew (25 September 2015). "Iran blames Saudi leaders for hajj disaster as investigation begins". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Schemm, Paul (12 May 2016). "Iran suspends participation in the hajj as relations with Saudi Arabia plummet". The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ "Saudi launches Persian hajj TV after tensions with Iran". Agence France‑Presse. 11 September 2016. Archived from the original on 12 September 2016. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ "Iran, Saudi spar over running of haj pilgrimage". Reuters. 6 September 2016. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Brumfield, Ben; Basil, Yousuf; Pearson, Michael (2 January 2016). "Tehran protest after Saudi Arabia executes Shiite cleric". CNN. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ Loveluck, Louisa. "Iran supreme leader says Saudi faces 'divine revenge'". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ "Police Arrest 40 People for Storming Saudi Embassy in Tehran". Fars News Agency. 3 January 2016. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
- ^ Brumfield, Ben; Basil, Yousuf; Pearson, Michael (3 January 2016). "Mideast protests rage after Saudi Arabia executes Shia cleric al-Nimr, 46 others". CNN. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
- ^ "More countries back Saudi Arabia in Iran dispute". Al Jazeera. 6 January 2016. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia ally Comoros breaks off relations with Iran". Agence France-Presse. 16 January 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ "Bahrain cuts diplomatic ties with Iran". Al Jazeera. 4 January 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
- ^ Bennett-Jones, Owen (4 May 2015). "Saudi king faces changing landscape". BBC News. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
- ^ Stuster, J. Dana (13 September 2016). "Middle East Ticker: A New Syrian Ceasefire and a Saudi-Iran Oil Spat". Lawfare Blog. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Arkhipov, Ilya; Khrennikova, Dina; Mazneva, Elena (2 September 2016). "Putin Pushes for Oil Freeze Deal With OPEC, Exemption for Iran". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ El Gamal, Rania; Zhdannikov, Dmitry (23 September 2016). "Saudis offer oil cut for OPEC deal if Iran freezes output: sources". Reuters. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Khalilzad, Zalmay (14 September 2016). "'We Misled You': How the Saudis Are Coming Clean on Funding Terrorism". Politico. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Zarif, Mohammad Javad (13 September 2016). "Mohammad Javad Zarif: Let Us Rid the World of Wahhabism". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Erdbrink, Thomas; Krauss, Clifford (8 December 2016). "Iran Races to Clinch Oil Deals Before Donald Trump Takes Office". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
- ^ Hubbard, Ben; Erdbrink, Thomas (21 May 2017). "In Saudi Arabia, Trump Reaches Out to Sunni Nations, at Iran's Expense". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
- ^ a b McKernan, Bethan (15 May 2017). "Two dead in Saudi town 'siege' against Shia militants". The Independent. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ "Snipers Injure Scores of Civilians in Saudi Arabia's Qatif". Iran Front Page. 14 June 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ MacDonald, Alex (14 May 2017). "Several reported killed as Saudi town enters fifth day of 'siege'". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ "U.N. slams erasing of "cultural heritage" in Saudi Arabia". Reuters. 24 May 2017. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ "Tehran says Saudi coastguard killed Iranian fisherman". Al Jazeera. 17 June 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ Al-Shihri, Abdullah; Batrawy, Aya (19 June 2017). "Saudi Arabia claims arrest of Iran's Revolutionary Guard". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Associated Press. Retrieved 6 July 2017.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Iran denies Saudi claim of Revolutionary Guards' arrest". Al Jazeera. 19 June 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ Sharafedin, Bozorgmehr (7 June 2017). "Islamist militants strike heart of Tehran, Iran blames Saudis". Reuters. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ Karimi, Nasser (9 June 2017). "Iran leaders accuse US, Saudis of supporting Tehran attacks". Associated Press. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ Osborne, Samuel (13 June 2017). "US 'created Isis' and its war on the terrorists is 'a lie', says Iran's Supreme Leader". The Independent. Retrieved 15 July 2017.
- ^ Revill, John (25 October 2017). "Swiss to represent Iran, Saudi interests after rivals broke ties". Reuters. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
- ^ Fitch, Asa (6 November 2017). "Iran-Saudi Cold War Intensifies as Militant Threat Fades". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (6 November 2017). "Saudi Arabia Charges Iran With 'Act of War,' Raising Threat of Military Clash". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
- ^ El Sirgany, Sarah (7 November 2017). "Iran's actions may be 'act of war,' Saudi crown prince says". CNN. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
- ^ a b c "Bahrain says pipeline explosion 'terrorist sabotage' linked to Iran". Deutsche Welle. 12 November 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
- ^ "Dubai security chief calls for bombing of Al Jazeera". Al Jazeera. 25 November 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ O'Connor, Tom (27 November 2017). "Iran: Muslim 'Resistance' to U.S., Saudi Arabia and Israel Ready to Fight Worldwide". Newsweek. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ Kamali Dehghan, Saeed (31 October 2018). "Concern over UK-based Iranian TV channel's links to Saudi Arabia". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
- ^ Carey, Glen (10 January 2018). "Even Saudi Arabia's Allies Are Questioning Its Mideast Power Plays". Retrieved 23 January 2018.
- ^ "Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, power behind the throne". BBC News. 7 March 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
- ^ Perper, Rosie (7 March 2018). "Saudi Arabia is in nuclear talks with the US — and it could be a sign the country is trying to get even with rival Iran". Business Insider. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (8 March 2018). "Saudi crown prince sees a new axis of 'evil' in the Middle East". The Washington Post. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- ^ a b Hubbard, Ben (15 March 2018). "Saudi Crown Prince Likens Iran's Supreme Leader to Hitler". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
- ^ a b c Macias, Amanda (19 March 2018). "Saudi crown prince, Trump to hold 'critical' talks on Iran nuclear deal". CNBC. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- ^ Chulov, Martin (24 October 2017). "I will return Saudi Arabia to moderate Islam, says crown prince". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
- ^ a b c Landler, Mark (8 May 2018). "Trump Withdraws U.S. From 'One-Sided' Iran Nuclear Deal". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
- ^ Randolph, Eric (26 February 2018). "Iran's eastern shift shows patience running out with the West". Yahoo News. Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- ^ a b O'Connor, Tom (10 May 2018). "Saudi Arabia Should 'Come Out of the Closet' and Help Fight Iran in Syria, Israel Says". Newsweek. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ O'Connor, Tom (9 May 2018). "Did Trump Break the Law? U.S. Leaves Iran Deal, Violates World Order and Risks War, Experts Say". Newsweek. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ Harris, Gardiner; Ewing, Jack (6 August 2018). "U.S. to Restore Sanctions on Iran, Deepening Divide With Europe". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
- ^ Bayoumy, Yara; Landay, Jonathan; Strobel, Warren (27 July 2018). "Trump seeks to revive 'Arab NATO' to confront Iran". Reuters. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
- ^ Abedi, Maham (12 October 2018). "Why the case of a missing journalist is prompting international backlash against Saudi Arabia". Global News. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- ^ The White House (20 November 2018). "Statement from President Donald J. Trump on Standing with Saudi Arabia". White House. Retrieved 17 December 2018 – via National Archives.
- ^ Jalonick, Mary Clare; Mascaro, Lisa; Lee, Matthew (14 December 2018). "Senate rebukes Trump, Saudi Arabia over Khashoggi, Yemen war". Associated Press. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- ^ El Gamal, Rania; Sharafedin, Bozorgmehr (12 May 2019). "Saudi oil tankers among those attacked off UAE amid Iran tensions". Reuters. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
- ^ Gambrell, Jon (13 June 2019). "Tankers struck near Strait of Hormuz; US blames Iran". Associated Press. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
- ^ "Iran Says It Wants Good Relations With Saudi Arabia, U.A.E." RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
- ^ Gambrell, Jon (14 September 2019). "Saudi Arabia: Drone attacks knocked out half its oil supply". Associated Press. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
- ^ "Saudi oil attacks: US says intelligence shows Iran involved". BBC News. 16 September 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
- ^ Nissenbaum, Dion; Said, Summer; Youssef, Nancy A. (14 September 2019). "Suspicions Rise That Saudi Oil Attack Came From Outside Yemen". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
- ^ Nissenbaum, Dion; Said, Summer (16 September 2019). "U.S. Tells Saudi Arabia Oil Attacks Were Launched From Iran". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
- ^ Pérez-Peña, Richard; Kirkpatrick, David D. (16 September 2019). "Saudi Arabia Says Iranian Weapons Were Used in Strikes on Oil Facilities". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
- ^ "Iranian President Hassan Rouhani says Saudi Arabia should see attack on oil facilities as a warning to end its Yemen war". Associated Press. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
- ^ "Qasem Soleimani: US kills top Iranian general in Baghdad air strike". BBC News. 3 January 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
- ^ Abdul-Zahra, Qassim (1 January 2020). "Protesters attack US Embassy in Baghdad after airstrikes". Associated Press. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
- ^ Salim, Mustafa; Ryan, Missy; Sly, Liz; Hudson, John (3 January 2020). "In major escalation, American strike kills top Iranian commander in Baghdad". The Washington Post. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
- ^ "Reactions to the killing of Iranian general in a U.S. air strike". Reuters. 2 January 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
- ^ Singh, Maanvi; Greve, Joan; Doherty, Ben; Butler, Ben; Perraudin, Frances; Safi, Michael; Borger, Julian (8 January 2020). "Iran launches missiles at US forces in Iraq at al-Asad and Erbil—live updates". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
- ^ Eqbali, Aresu; Malsin, Jared; Leary, Alex (7 January 2020), "Iran Fires Missiles at U.S. Forces in Iraq", The Wall Street Journal, retrieved 7 January 2020
- ^ "Iran Fires Missiles at Two U.S. Bases in Iraq: Live Updates". The New York Times. 8 January 2020. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
- ^ Brook, Tom Vanden; Woodyard, Chris; Bacon, John (9 January 2020). "Iran plane crash: U.S., Canada say intel shows Ukraine jet downed by Iranian missile". USA Today.
- ^ "Hezbollah: It's time for Iran's allies to start working to avenge Soleimani". Reuters. 12 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
- ^ "Iran's Khamenei calls for better regional cooperation, criticizes U.S." Reuters. 12 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
- ^ "Qatar emir in Iran, calls for regional de-escalation at 'sensitive' time". Reuters. 12 January 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
- ^ Leins, Casey (12 January 2019). "State Officials Address Heightened Iranian Cybersecurity Threats". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
- ^ Ravid, Barak (7 September 2016). "Israel Urges U.S., Europe to Bolster Ties With Sudan, Citing Apparent Split With Iran". Haaretz. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
- ^ The solidifying Arab-Israeli Alliance "Relations between Israel, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Saudi Arabia continue in the shadows, with reports of senior Israeli officials regularly visiting the Gulf States. Israeli cabinet ministers have openly visited the UAE and Oman, with more set to take place in the future."
- ^ "Arab-Israeli Progress Seemed Impossible. That's Because of Old Assumptions". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 23 September 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
- ^ a b Israel announces regional air defense network with Middle East partners, US Breaking Defense
- ^ "Israeli defense chief said to talk anti-Iran alliance with Saudi counterpart". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ "Gantz: Israel is building a Middle East air defense alliance against Iran". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
Defense minister hints at report on US-led talks between Israel, Saudi Arabia, and others to counter Tehran's missiles and drones; stresses opposition to 'bad nuclear deal'
- ^ Iran says talks with regional rival Saudi Arabia resumed in Baghdad Reuters
- ^ "Iraq helps broker Iran-Saudi negotiations - Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East". Al-monitor. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ "Iran Hails Latest Talks With Saudi Arabia as 'Positive'". Voice of America. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ "US 'will not walk away' from Middle East: Biden at Saudi summit". Al Jazeera. 16 July 2022. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
President Joe Biden says the US will remain an active and engaged partner in the Middle East, focusing on regional ties.
- ^ "WWE stars 'concerned' as Saudi Arabia on high alert amid warning of Iran attack". Daily Mirror. 3 November 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
WWE are due to host another edition of the Crown Jewel premium live event in Saudi Arabia this weekend but there are concerns due to the threat of a strike on the country from Iran
- ^ "Saudi Arabia sounds alarms of imminent Iranian attack within kingdom: Report". MSN.
- ^ "US, Saudi Arabia on high alert over intel of impending Iranian attack: report". Fox news. 1 November 2022.
Planned strikes are believed to be targeting Saudi Arabia and Iraq
- ^ "Iran Denies Planning Attacks on Saudi Arabia, Iraq". The Wall Street Journal.
- ^ "Iran denies it poses a threat to Saudi Arabia, after report Saudis raised concern". Reuters – via MSN.
Iran denied on Wednesday it posed a threat to Saudi Arabia, after the Wall Street Journal reported that Riyadh had shared intelligence with the United States warning of an imminent attack from Iran on targets in the kingdom.
- ^ Akbarzadeh, Shahram; Gourlay, William; Ehteshami, Anoushiravan (4 January 2022). "Iranian proxies in the Syrian conflict: Tehran's 'forward-defence' in action" (PDF). Journal of Strategic Studies. 46 (3): 683–706. doi:10.1080/01402390.2021.2023014. S2CID 245780309 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
- ^ a b c d e f g Mirza, Muhammad Nadeem; Abbas, Hussain; Qaisrani, Irfan Hasnain (2021). "Structural Sources of Saudi–Iran Rivalry and Competition for the Sphere of Influence". SAGE Open. 11 (3): 5. doi:10.1177/21582440211032642. ISSN 2158-2440. S2CID 237644767.
- ^ a b c d e f Mirza, Muhammad Nadeem; Abbas, Hussain; Qaisrani, Irfan Hasnain (2021). "Structural Sources of Saudi–Iran Rivalry and Competition for the Sphere of Influence". SAGE Open. 11 (3): 6. doi:10.1177/21582440211032642. ISSN 2158-2440. S2CID 237644767.
- ^ "Hamas Distributes Qatari Money Quietly Brought into Gaza".
- ^ "US accuses ex-Venezuela politician of helping recruit Hezbollah, Hamas operatives". June 2020.
- ^ Bechtol, Bruce E. North Korean Military Proliferation in the Middle East and Africa: Enabling Violence and Instability.
- ^ "Why Palestine Supports China on the South China Sea". The Diplomat. Retrieved 8 October 2018.
- ^ Bahi, Riham (2018). "Iran-Saudi Rivalry in Africa: Implications for Regional Stability". Middle East Policy. 25 (4): 30–32. doi:10.1111/mepo.12374. S2CID 159397471.
- ^ Seliktar, Ofira; Rezaei, Farhad (2020). Iran, Revolution, and Proxy Wars. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 77.
- ^ Seliktar, Ofira; Rezaei, Farhad (2021). Iran, Revolution, and Proxy Wars. Springer Nature. p. 77. ISBN 978-3-030-29420-5. OCLC 1224518481.
- ^ a b Seliktar, Ofira; Rezaei, Farhad (2021). Iran, Revolution, and Proxy Wars. Springer Nature. p. 78. ISBN 978-3-030-29420-5. OCLC 1224518481.
- ^ Seliktar, Ofira; Rezaei, Farhad (2021). Iran, Revolution, and Proxy Wars. Springer Nature. p. 79. ISBN 978-3-030-29420-5. OCLC 1224518481.
- ^ About Hezbollah Hezbollah
- ^ Brooks, Rachel (8 May 2021). ""The Hezbollah model" and how the Hezbollah influenced the Houthis".
- ^ "Yemen's Houthi rebels raise nearly $300,000 for Hezbollah". The National. 22 July 2019.
- ^ "Hezbollah and the Syrian Conflict". Middle East Institute.
- ^ Bahi, Riham (2018). "Iran-Saudi Rivalry in Africa: Implications for Regional Stability". Middle East Policy. 25 (4): 31. doi:10.1111/mepo.12374. S2CID 159397471.
- ^ a b c Bahi, Riham (2018). "Iran-Saudi Rivalry in Africa: Implications for Regional Stability". Middle East Policy. 25 (4): 32. doi:10.1111/mepo.12374. S2CID 159397471.
- ^ "Explained: How Hezbollah built a drug empire via its 'narcoterrorist strategy'". Arab News. 2 May 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
- ^ "Hezbollah & Other Shia Groups Archives". Archived from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
- ^ a b Weinthal, Benjamin (18 July 2020), "Qatar finances Hezbollah terrorism, declares 'Jews are enemies' - report", The Jerusalem Post, retrieved 1 September 2021
- ^ Miller, James (28 September 2015). "Putin's New Axis of Resistance: Russia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Hezbollah". The Daily Beast.
- ^ "- SUDAN AND TERRORISM". www.govinfo.gov.
- ^ "Gulf Cooperation Council Labels Hezbollah a Terrorist Group". The Wall Street Journal. 2 March 2016.
- ^ "Arab League brands Hezbollah 'terror' group". Al Arabiya English. 11 March 2016.
- ^ "Lebanon's Hezbollah Leader Criticizes Saudi Arabia, Deepening Rift". Voice of America. 4 January 2022.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia turns up the heat on Hezbollah". 30 November 2001. Archived from the original on 1 February 2017.
- ^ "Egypt | Hezbollah". hezbollah.org.
- ^ "Morocco cuts diplomatic ties with Iran over Western Sahara feud". www.aljazeera.com.
- ^ Reuters, 2 May 2018
- ^ a b "Hezbollah is a Shiite political and militant organization based in Lebanon". CISAC.
- ^ "Iran's Proxy Threat Is the Real Problem Now". Foreign Policy. 10 January 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
Iran may call it a day after its token strike at U.S. forces in Iraq—but will its proxy forces?
- ^ "Israel-Hamas-Hezbollah: The Current Conflict" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. 21 July 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 September 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2006.
- ^ Sunni Palestinian Islamic Jihad Thanks Iran and Hezbollah (English Subtitles). 13 July 2014. Archived from the original on 22 May 2015 – via YouTube.
- ^ "Lebanese Hezbollah training special Afghan Fatemiyoun forces for combat in Syria". Long War Journal. 14 July 2016.
- ^ Houthis and Hezbollah are learning warfighting techniques from one another "Hezbollah and the Houthis are linked by a mutual sympathy of two Shi'ite organizations, each working in their arena. This cooperation is part of a system that is headed by Tehran. This is the right way to look at it,"
- ^ "Liwa al-Baqir (The Baqir Brigade) in Syria | TRENDS". Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018.
- ^ "The 2021 Gaza War 2021: Iran, Hezbollah and the 'Axis of Resistance'". JNS. 29 June 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
For Iran, "Palestine" is only one part of a complex strategy aimed at Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Syria, and Lebanon; each arena has its own blueprint, a toolbox of hostile insurgency actions and the guidance of Hezbollah, the Quds Force and well-trained militias.
- ^ "North Korea's Balancing Act in the Persian Gulf". HuffPost. 17 August 2015. Archived from the original on 17 August 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
North Korea's military support for Houthi rebels in Yemen is the latest manifestation of its support for anti-American forces.
- ^ "The September 14 drone attack on Saudi oil fields: North Korea's potential role | NK News". 30 September 2019. Archived from the original on 11 October 2019. Retrieved 11 October 2019.
- ^ "North Korea is hiding nukes and selling weapons, alleges confidential UN report". CNN. 5 February 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
The summary also accuses North Korea of violating a UN arms embargo and supplying small arms, light weapons and other military equipment to Libya, Sudan, and Houthi rebels in Yemen, through foreign intermediaries.
- ^ "Secret UN report reveals North Korea attempts to supply Houthis with weapons". Al-Arabiya. 4 August 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
The report said that experts were investigating efforts by the North Korean Ministry of Military Equipment and Korea Mining Development Trading Corporation (KOMID) to supply conventional arms and ballistic missiles to Yemen's Houthi group.
- ^ "Panel investigates North Korean weapon used in Mogadishu attack on UN compound". 3 March 2021.
- ^ "Oman is a mediator in Yemen. Can it play the same role in Qatar?". The Washington Post. 22 July 2017. Archived from the original on 18 October 2018. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
Oman is a mediator in Yemen. Can it play the same role in Qatar?
- ^ "Oman denies arms smuggled through border to Houthis". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
- ^ "Yemen's Houthi-led govt appoints new envoy to Syria". Middle East Monitor. 12 November 2020. Archived from the original on 13 November 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
Yemen's Houthi-led National Salvation Government (NSG) has appointed a new ambassador to Syria, one of the countries alongside Iran which recognises the Sanaa-based government.
- ^ Mahmood, Ali. "Aden's STC says Qatar is giving Houthis financial support". The National.
The Southern Transitional Council said Doha is helping Iranian-backed rebels to buy weapons
- ^ "A former intelligence officer reveals Qatar's support for the Houthis to strike Saudi Arabia". Saudi24News. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
The newspaper quoted the former intelligence officer, who introduced himself under a pseudonym "Jason J", as saying that Doha has been funding the Houthi militia over the past few years "directly" with the aim of attacking Saudi Arabia. The Austrian newspaper stated that the files of the former intelligence man contain accurate details of Qatar's funding over the years for the Lebanese Hezbollah militias and the Muslim Brotherhood, which reveals the seriousness of the role Qatar plays in the region.
- ^ How did Qatar back the Houthis in Yemen? Egypt Today:The magazine of Egypt
- ^ "Yemeni adviser: Qatar's support for Houthis blatant". Theportal-center.com. 24 June 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ Mohammed, Islam Financing and arming, Qatar's dangerous support for the Muslim Brotherhood and Houthis in Yemen
- ^ "How friendship with Venezuela benefits Iran's isolated regime". Arab News. 30 January 2021.
- ^ Mirza, Muhammad Nadeem; Abbas, Hussain; Qaisrani, Irfan Hasnain (2021). "Structural Sources of Saudi–Iran Rivalry and Competition for the Sphere of Influence". SAGE Open. 11 (3): 1. doi:10.1177/21582440211032642. ISSN 2158-2440. S2CID 237644767.
- ^ Esfandiary, Dina; Tabatabai, Ariane (2016). "Yemen: an Opportunity for Iran–Saudi Dialogue?". The Washington Quarterly. 39 (2): 166. doi:10.1080/0163660X.2016.1204415. ISSN 0163-660X. S2CID 156086272.
- ^ Esfandiary, Dina; Tabatabai, Ariane (2 April 2016). "Yemen: an Opportunity for Iran–Saudi Dialogue?". The Washington Quarterly. 39 (2): 159. doi:10.1080/0163660X.2016.1204415. ISSN 0163-660X. S2CID 156086272.
- ^ Esfandiary, Dina; Tabatabai, Ariane (2 April 2016). "Yemen: an Opportunity for Iran–Saudi Dialogue?". The Washington Quarterly. 39 (2): 163. doi:10.1080/0163660X.2016.1204415. ISSN 0163-660X. S2CID 156086272.
- ^ a b Bahi, Riham (2018). "Iran-Saudi Rivalry in Africa: Implications for Regional Stability". Middle East Policy. 25 (4): 30. doi:10.1111/mepo.12374. S2CID 159397471.
- ^ "Yemen Houthis welcome talks with Saudi-led coalition, but in a neutral country". Reuters. 16 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
- ^ "Yemen Houthis attack Saudi energy facilities, refinery output hit". Reuters. 20 March 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ^ "Saudi-led coalition sets deadline for Houthi weapons withdrawal from Sanaa airport -Al Arabiya". Reuters. 26 March 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia responded positively to U.N. truce for Yemen, official says". Reuters. 1 April 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
- ^ "U.S. sets up new Mideast naval task force amid strained Gulf ties". Reuters. 13 April 2022. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
- ^ "Saudi-led coalition says it will release 163 Houthi prisoners". Reuters. 28 April 2022. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
- ^ "Saudi-led coalition transfers scores of freed prisoners to Yemen". Reuters. 6 May 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
- ^ "Yemen's warring sides reach deal on stalled Sanaa flights, officials say". Reuters. 12 May 2022. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
- ^ "Yemen warring parties agree to extend truce for two months -U.N." Reuters. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia frees 13 Houthis as Oman tries to broker new truce" aljazeera.net. Accessed 9 April 2023.
- ^ "Who can rein in Iran-aligned Shiite militias in Iraq after Soleimani". 29 July 2021.
- ^ Dury-Agri, Jessa Rose; Kassim, Omer; Martin, Patrick (2017). "Popular Mobilization Forces" (PDF). Iraqi Security Forces and Popular Mobilization Forces: 28–54. JSTOR resrep17468.6.
- ^ Jones, Seth G.; Thompson, Jared; Ngo, Danielle; Jr, Joseph S. Bermudez; McSorley, Brian (21 December 201). "The Iranian and Houthi War against Saudi Arabia". CSIS. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia's use of soft power in Iraq is making Iran nervous". The Economist.
- ^ "Sectarianism will prolong instability in Iraq: Saudi Arabia". Reuters. 5 January 2013.
- ^ "المهندس يكشف دور ايران وحزب الله بدعم العراق ويتحدث عن القتال بسوريا". Archived from the original on 11 May 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- ^ "الحشد الشعبي يكشف حقيقة ارساله قوات خاصة للمشاركة في حرب اليمن". Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
- ^ "العراق و معسكرات تدريب مخربي البحرين و السعودية". 4 December 2013. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
- ^ "'سرايا الأشتر'.. تنظيم شيعي مسلح يهدد البحرين". بوابة الحركات الاسلامية.
- ^ "Iran's Involvement in Bahrain: A Battleground as Part of the Islamic Regime's Larger Existential Conflict". Small Wars Journal.
- ^ The Evolution of Shi`a Insurgency in Bahrain CTC
- ^ "Militias Operating In and Against Bahrain | Part II". egic.
- ^ "Bahrain: Widespread Suppression, Scant Reforms". Human Rights Watch. 31 January 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
- ^ Philip Kennicott (22 April 2011). "In Bahrain, government crackdown hits middle-class Shiites hard". The Washington Post. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
- ^ Elliott Abrams (22 April 2011). "Bahrain Heads for Disaster" Archived 19 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
- ^ Naar, Ismaeel (9 June 2017). "Who are the al-Ashtar Brigades, latest Arab-designated 'terrorist group'?". Al Arabiya.
- ^ Alhasan, Hasan Tariq (2011). "The Role of Iran in the Failed Coup of 1981: The IFLB in Bahrain". The Middle East Journal. 65 (4): 603–617. doi:10.3751/65.4.15. S2CID 145342368.
- ^ "Bahrain Impact of the Iran-Iraq War, 1980-88". Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ "Bahrain Salafists Increase Involvement in Syria War - Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East". www.al-monitor.com. 1 July 2013.
- ^ "Egypt, Jordan and Sudan ready for ground offensive in Yemen: report". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. 26 March 2015. Archived from the original on 26 March 2015. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia's allies Bahrain, Sudan and UAE act against Iran". BBC News. 4 January 2016. Archived from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
- ^ "The Abraham Accords". U.S. Department of States. Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
- ^ "Kuwait To Send Troops To Saudi For Yemen War: Report". NDTV. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ^ "Insight: Kuwaitis campaign privately to arm Syrian rebels". Reuters.
- ^ "United Arab Emirates - Middle East Battle Lines". Ecfr.eu. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia and UAE launch new economic and military alliance". Financial Times. 5 December 2017.
- ^ Saudi-led coalition air strikes target Yemen's Houthi rebels after Abu Dhabi attack France24
- ^ "Saudi Arabia, UAE support Egypt's comments on Libya". Middle East Monitor. 21 June 2020. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia Promised Support to Libyan Warlord in Push to Seize Tripoli". The Wall Street Journal.
As some nations looked to Khalifa Haftar for stability in Libya, others backed his army
- ^ "Iranian Kurds Return to Arms". Stratfor. 29 July 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia, UAE send troops to support Kurds in Syria". Middle East Monitor. 22 November 2018.
- ^ a b Ibish, Hussein (4 October 2017). "The Gulf Arab Countries and the Kurdish Referendum". Stratfor.
- ^ a b "Saudi Arabia's use of soft power in Iraq is making Iran nervous". The Economist. 8 March 2018. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- ^ "Why Iran's agents hound political refugees in distant Albania". Arab News. 2 July 2019.
- ^ Daragahi, Borzou (20 December 2018). "Iran diplomats expelled from Albania plotted against dissidents, source says". The Independent. Independent Digital News & Media Ltd. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
- ^ Koleka, Benet (23 October 2019). "Albania says it foiled Iranian plot to attack exiled dissidents". Reuters. Tirana: Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
- ^ Ruci, Ani; Arapi, Lindita (21 January 2020). "Iran lashes out against Albania after Soleimani killing". Deutsche Welle.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia commends Albania for expelling Iranian diplomats linked to terrorism". Al Arabiya English. 22 December 2018.
- ^ "Baluch Insurgents in Iran". The Iran Primer. 5 April 2017.
- ^ "Iran: Saudis gave Israel 'strategic' intel in 2006 Lebanon war". The Times of Israel. 7 June 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
- ^ Marcus, Jonathan (24 November 2017). "Israel and Saudi Arabia: What's shaping the covert 'alliance'". BBC News. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
- ^ Hubbard, Ben (13 May 2018). "With Demise of Nuclear Deal, Iran's Foes See an Opportunity. Others See Risk of War". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ Myre, Greg (25 September 2006). "Olmert reportedly held secret meeting with king of Saudi Arabia". International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 26 June 2018. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
- ^ OKBI, YASSER (5 January 2016). "IDF officer to Saudi paper: Israel has 'common language' with moderate Arab states". MAARIV HASHAVUA. Archived from the original on 6 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. (1993). Saudi Arabia: A Country Study. Federal Research Division. doi:10.21236/ada273008. ISBN 0-8444-0791-7 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ "Iran:Export of the Revolution" (PDF). Central Intelligence Agency. 10 March 1980. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ Dudley, William S. (2007), "Navies, Great Powers – United States, 1775 to the Present – The tanker war", in Hattendorf, John J. (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195130751.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-530740-5
- ^ "The Evolution of Iran's Special Groups in Iraq". November 2010. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ Mazzetti, Mark (19 October 2008). "Documents Say Iran Aids Militias From Iraq". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
- ^ "Combating Terrorism Center". Ctc.usma.edu. Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Dafna Linzer – Troops Authorized to Kill Iranian Operatives in Iraq Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine – The Washington Post
- ^ "S/RES/1747(2007)". Undocs.org. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ U.S. troops come under fire in Syria after strikes against Iran-backed militias Reuters
- ^ Iran's role in attack on U.S. troops in Syria signals new escalation The Washington Post
- ^ "Officials: Iran behind drone attack on US base in Syria". Al Jazeera.
- ^ "Iran expands Taliban support, targets U.S. troops in Afghanistan". The Washington Times. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ US-Iran proxy war rages back to life in Iraq Stimson Research
- ^ "The Strait of Hormuz". Reuters.
- ^ "Iran threatens to block Strait of Hormuz oil route". BBC News. 28 December 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ "U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy: Updated May 8, 2020" (PDF). Fas.org. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ Sengupta, Kim (12 May 2015). "Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria". The Independent.
- ^ "Saudi-led airstrikes in Yemen have been called war crimes. Many relied on U.S. Support. - Washington Post". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 June 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
- ^ "Biden announces end to US support for Saudi-led offensive in Yemen". The Guardian. 4 February 2021. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
- ^ "Mike Pompeo calls attacks on Saudi facilities an 'act of war' as Trump orders more Iran sanctions". Bangor Daily News. 18 September 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
- ^ "US to deploy more troops to Saudi Arabia after attack on oil industry". The Guardian. 21 September 2019.
- ^ Fisher, Max (19 November 2016). "How the Iranian-Saudi Proxy Struggle Tore Apart the Middle East (Published 2016)". The New York Times.
- ^ Vertin, Zach (20 May 2019). "Turkey and the new scramble for Africa: Ottoman designs or unfounded fears?".
- ^ "Why is Saudi Arabia Re-Writing the History of the Ottoman Empire?". Al Bawaba.
- ^ Mohyeldin, Ayman (6 June 2017). "Qatar and Its Neighbors Have Been At Odds Since the Arab Spring". NBC News. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
- ^ Wintour, Patrick (7 June 2017). "Qatar: UAE and Saudi Arabia step up pressure in diplomatic crisis". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
- ^ Gambrell, Jon (6 June 2017). "Arab nations cut ties with Qatar in new Mideast crisis". Associated Press. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
- ^ Browning, Noah (5 June 2017). "Yemen cuts diplomatic ties with Qatar: state news agency". Reuters. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ "Qatar row: Saudi and Egypt among countries to cut Doha links". BBC News. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
- ^ Khatri, Shabina S. (1 July 2017). "Defense minister: Blockade of Qatar a 'declaration of war'". Doha News. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
- ^ Alkhalisi, Zahraa (22 June 2017). "Qatar: 'We can defend our currency and the economy'". CNN. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
- ^ "Qatar crisis: Saudi Arabia and allies restore diplomatic ties with emirate". BBC News. 5 January 2021.
- ^ Fahim, Kareem (23 June 2017). "Demands by Saudi-led Arab states for Qatar include shuttering Al Jazeera". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
- ^ Erickson, Amanda (23 June 2017). "Why Saudi Arabia hates Al Jazeera so much". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
- ^ "Saudi-led group: Qatar not serious about demands". Al Jazeera. 6 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ "Saudi-led group vows 'appropriate' measures". Al Jazeera. 7 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ "Qatar To Reinstate Ambassador To Iran Amid Gulf Crisis". 24 August 2017.
- ^ "Saudi FM: Full ties restored between Qatar and blockading nations". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
- ^ "Qatari diplomat allegedly covered up Hezbollah terror funding - exclusive". The Jerusalem Post. 30 July 2020.
- ^ "كيف دعمت قطر المشروع الإيراني في البحرين؟ - العربية.نت | الصفحة الرئيسية". Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2019.
- ^ Haaretz; Press, The Associated (11 July 2017). "Fact Check: Is Qatar Supporting Terrorism? A Look at Its Ties to Iran, ISIS and the Muslim Brotherhood". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ "Qatar's Dirty Hands". National Review. 3 August 2017.
- ^ "Syrian conflict: Russian bombers use Iran bases for air strikes". BBC News. 16 August 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ Mullen, Jethro; Basil, Yousuf (28 September 2015). "Iraq agrees to share intelligence with Russia, Iran and Syria". CNN. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- ^ Barnard, Anne; Shoumali, Karam (12 October 2015). "U.S. Weaponry Is Turning Syria Into a Proxy War With Russia". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- ^ Pengelly, Martin (4 October 2015). "John McCain says US is engaged in proxy war with Russia in Syria". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- ^ Tilghman, Andrew; Pawlyk, Oriana (4 October 2015). "U.S. vs. Russia: What a war would look like between the world's most fearsome militaries". Military Times. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- ^ "Growing ties with Russia could strain Saudi-US relations". Middle East Institute.
- ^ "The Arab Connection to Chechen Conflict | YaleGlobal Online". yaleglobal.yale.edu. 19 May 2021. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
- ^ Wintour, Patrick (5 October 2017). "Saudi king's visit to Russia heralds shift in global power structures". The Guardian.
- ^ "Revealed: Saudi's MBS pushed Russia to intervene in Syria conflict, despite supporting opposition". Middle East Monitor. 7 August 2020.
- ^ "Le Monde: Saudi Arabia funds Russian mercenaries in Libya | The Libya Observer". Libyaobserver.ly. 14 May 2023.
- ^ a b "Report: Russia, Israel, Jordan and Saudis to Cooperate on Limiting Iran After Syria Withdrawal". Hamodia.com. 21 December 2018. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
- ^ "Tensions Grow Between Russia, Iran in Syria | Voice of America – English". Voice of America.
- ^ "Oman Balances Between Iran and Saudi Arabia". Middle East Institute.
- ^ "The Saudi-Iran Factor in Pakistan's Sunni-Shia Conflict". Middle East Institute.
- ^ "Why are Pakistani Shiites 'disappearing'?". Deutsche Welle. 9 July 2019.
- ^ Janne Bjerre Christensen. "DIIS Report: STRAINED ALLIANCES IRAN's TROUBLED RELATIONS TO AFGHANISTAN AND PAKISTAN" (PDF). Econstor.eu. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ Basit, Saira (2 November 2018). "Explaining the impact of militancy on Iran–Pakistan relations". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 29 (5–6): 1040–1064. doi:10.1080/09592318.2018.1546362. S2CID 150562561.
- ^ "Don't underestimate Pakistan's relationship with Iran". Trtworld.com.
- ^ "Pakistani Prime Minister Khan visits Saudi Arabia to reset ties". Al Jazeera. 7 May 2021.
- ^ "Pakistan: Threat of Saudi-Iran War Subsiding Due to Diplomacy by Islamabad". Voice of America. 16 October 2019.
But with its large Shi'ite minority and a nearly 900-kilometer (560 mile) border with Iran, Islamabad has largely stayed neutral in Middle East tensions. It declined a Saudi call a few years back to join the military alliance fighting the Houthi insurgents in Yemen, winning praise from Iran.
- ^ "Why Pakistan Isn't Taking Sides After Outbreak of US-Iran Conflict". Voice of America. 25 January 2020.
More recently, then-Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif first declared neutrality in Yemen's ongoing conflict between a Saudi-led coalition and Iranian-backed Houthi militants in 2015. Sharif's successor, Prime Minister Khan, has continued that approach.
- ^ "Pakistan's Imran Khan in Tehran to facilitate Iran-Saudi talks". Al Jazeera. 13 October 2019.
- ^ Khalaji, Mehdi (27 June 2011). "Iran's Policy Confusion about Bahrain". The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
- ^ Johnson, Henry (30 October 2015). "Mapping the Deaths of Iranian Officers Across Syria". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ Saul, Jonathan; Hafezi, Parisa (21 February 2014). "Iran boosts military support in Syria to bolster Assad". Reuters. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ Sanger, David E.; Kirkpatrick, David D.; Sengupta, Somini (29 October 2015). "Rancor Between Saudi Arabia and Iran Threatens Talks on Syria". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ Bassam, Laila; Perry, Tom (6 November 2015). "Saudi support to rebels slows Assad attacks: pro-Damascus sources". Reuters. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ Reardon, Martin (26 March 2015). "Saudi Arabia, Iran and the 'Great Game' in Yemen". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
- ^ Malsin, Jared. "Yemen Is the Latest Victim of the Increase in Iran-Saudi Arabia Tension". Time. No. 11 January 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
- ^ Landry, Carole (30 April 2015). "Iran arming Yemen's Huthi rebels since 2009: UN report". Yahoo News. Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
- ^ Schmitt, Eric; Worth, Robert F. (15 March 2012). "With Arms for Yemen Rebels, Iran Seeks Wider Mideast Role". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
- ^ Bayoumy, Yara; Ghobari, Mohammed (15 December 2014). "Iranian support seen crucial for Yemen's Houthis". Reuters. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
- ^ See:
- "Exclusive: Iran Steps up Support for Houthis in Yemen's War – Sources". U.S. News & World Report. 21 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
- "Arab coalition intercepts Houthi ballistic missile targeting Saudi city of Jazan". Al Arabiya English. 20 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
- Taleblu, Behnam Ben; Toumaj, Amir (21 August 2016). "Analysis: IRGC implicated in arming Yemeni Houthis with rockets". Long War Journal. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
- Segall, Michael (2 March 2017). "Yemen Has Become Iran's Testing Ground for New Weapons". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
- "Exclusive: Iran steps up weapons supply to Yemen's Houthis via Oman – officials". Reuters. 20 October 2016.
- ^ Miles, Tom (9 May 2015). "Saudi-led strikes in Yemen break international law: U.N. coordinator". Reuters. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
- ^ Mazzetti, Mark; Hubbard, Ben; Rosenberg, Matthew (13 October 2016). "Yemen Sees U.S. Strikes as Evidence of Hidden Hand Behind Saudi Air War". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
- ^ Gaouette, Nicole (13 October 2016). "US in Yemen: If you threaten us, we'll respond". CNN. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
- ^ Fisher, Max (19 November 2016). "How the Iranian-Saudi Proxy Struggle Tore Apart the Middle East". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
- ^ Gause III, F. Gregory (March 2007). "Saudi Arabia: Iraq, Iran, the Regional Power Balance, and the Sectarian Question" (PDF). Strategic Insights. 6 (2). Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ Pfiffner, James P. (February 2010). "US Blunders in Iraq: De-Baathification and Disbanding the Army" (PDF). Intelligence and National Security. 25 (1): 76–85. doi:10.1080/02684521003588120. S2CID 153595453. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ Milani, Mohsen (22 June 2014). "Tehran Doubles Down". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
- ^ Foizee, Bahauddin (5 June 2018). "ISIS resurgence more than likely in Iraq". Daily Times. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ^ Foizee, Bahauddin (11 December 2016). "Iranian Influence Gives Saudi Arabia Heartburn". International Policy Digest. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ Georgy, Michael; Aboulenein, Ahmed; Rasheed, Ahmed (21 March 2018). "In symbolic victory, Iran conquers Iraq's dates market". Reuters. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
- ^ Haddad, Fanar (10 August 2017). "Why a controversial Iraqi Shiite cleric visited Saudi Arabia". The Washington Post.
- ^ Alvandi, Roham (2010). "Muhammad Reza Pahlavi and the Bahrain Question, 1968–1970". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 32 (2): 159–177. doi:10.1080/13530191003794723. S2CID 159639635.
- ^ Hashem, Ali (19 January 2016). "Will Iran, Saudi Arabia patch things up?". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
- ^ Mabon, Simon (5 January 2016). "After years of proxy war, Saudi Arabia and Iran are finally squaring up in the open". The Independent. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
- ^ "Bahrain protesters join anti-government march in Manama". BBC News. 9 March 2012. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ Cafiero, Giorgio (8 July 2016). "Can Bahrain count on Moscow to fill Washington's shoes?". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
- ^ Hou, Qiang (13 August 2015). "Bahrain arrests 5 suspects over late July blast, claims Iran's role discovered". Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ Shoichet, Catherine E.; Castillo, Mariano (4 January 2016). "Saudi Arabia-Iran row spreads to other nations". CNN. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia and UAE tell citizens to avoid Lebanon". Middle East Eye. 23 February 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
- ^ "Saudi and UAE ban citizens from travelling to Lebanon". Al Jazeera. 23 February 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
- ^ "Saudi, UAE, Kuwait urge citizens to leave Lebanon". Al Jazeera. 9 November 2017.
- ^ Perry, Tom; Bassam, Laila (7 November 2017). "Saudi reopens Lebanon front in struggle with Iran". Reuters. Retrieved 8 November 2017.
- ^ Alsaafin, Linah; Najjar, Farah (8 November 2017). "Is Lebanon caught in a Saudi-Iran regional power play?". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 8 November 2017.
- ^ Younes, Ali; Mandhai, Shafik (8 November 2017). "Saudi-Iran power struggle to fill void in Lebanon". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 8 November 2017.
- ^ Sifton, John (6 July 2005). "Blood-Stained Hands: Past Atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan's Legacy of Impunity". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
- ^ Quince, Annabelle (9 February 2016). "Iran and Saudi Arabia: Divisions, proxy wars and chaos in the Middle East". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
- ^ a b Nader, Alireza; Scotten, Ali G.; Rahmani, Ahmad Idrees; Stewart, Robert; Mahnad, Leila (2014). Iran's Influence in Afghanistan: Implications for the U.S. Drawdown (PDF). RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8330-8592-4.
- ^ "چرا عربستان سعودی و قطر (متحدان امریکا) به تمویل طالبان پس از 2001 ادامه دادند؟". 26 December 2017.
- ^ "Sources of Tension in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Regional Perspective Exploring Iran & Saudi Arabia's Interests in Afghanistan & Pakistan: Stakeholders or Spoilers - A Zero Sum Game? PART 1: SAUDI ARABIA" (PDF). Swp-berlin.org. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ "Afghan Senate: Iran and Russia are supporting Taliban". Al Arabiya. 8 December 2016.
- ^ Alibabalu, Sayyad Sadri (27 October 2021). "Afghanistan Brings the Saudi-Iranian Rivalry to a New Level". Politics Today. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
The Taliban need both Iran-Saudi rivalry and their recognition and assistance in reconstructing Afghanistan's devastated infrastructure.
- ^ "South Asia: Pakistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ^ a b Shah, Saeed; Talley, Ian (21 February 2018). "Saudi Arabia Stymies U.S. Over Pakistan Terror List". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- ^ Urban, Mark (6 November 2013). "Saudi nuclear weapons 'on order' from Pakistan". BBC News. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ Dorsey, James (8 November 2017). "The Middle East Will Only Get Worse". Fair Observer. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ Forward, Pakistan. "Iran manipulates Pakistani Shia to satisfy 'nefarious' geopolitical agenda".
- ^ Forward, Pakistan. "Pakistani pilgrims are being recruited into Iran's mercenary groups".
- ^ "Iran recruits Pakistani Shias for combat in Syria – The Express Tribune". 11 December 2015.
- ^ "Iran recruits Afghan and Pakistani Shias to fight in Syria – Dhaka Tribune". dhakatribune.com. 17 September 2017.
- ^ Ghattas, Kim (22 December 2017). "Palestine Is a Victim of the Iranian-Saudi War". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
- ^ "Saudi crown prince says Israelis have right to their own land". Reuters. 2 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
- ^ Ramani, Samuel (24 February 2020). "Saudi Arabia steps up role in Libya". Al-Monitor.
- ^ "UAE, Saudi Arabia aiding Libya eastern forces, blacklisting Qatar for alleged support for other Libyans". The Libya Observer. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
- ^ "Turkey helped Iran deliver weapons to Islamists in Libya - Nordic Monitor". 22 February 2022.
- ^ "Turkey and regional rivals clash in Libya". Ahval News. 16 April 2019. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
- ^ "Iran FM voices support for Turkey-backed Libya government". Middle East Monitor. 17 June 2020.
- ^ "Iran- Turkey Partnership: A New Front in Libya". moderndiplomacy.eu. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
- ^ "UN sees evidence of Iranian interference in Libyan conflict". Arab Weekly. 9 December 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
UN experts point to "Iranian manufactured Dehlavieh anti-tank guided missile system in possession of an armed group affiliated to the GNA".
- ^ Roe, Sam (28 January 2007). "An atomic threat made in America". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
- ^ MacAskill, Ewen; Traynor, Ian (18 September 2003). "Saudis consider nuclear bomb". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
- ^ Harnden, Toby; Lamb, Christina (17 May 2015). "Saudis 'to get nuclear weapons'". The Times. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
- ^ "The 'Cold War' between Iran and Saudi Arabia is heating up. Here are 5 things you should know about it". Agence France-Presse. 12 November 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ Hafezi, Parisa; Charbonneau, Louis; Irish, John; Mohammed, Arshad (13 July 2015). "Iran deal reached, Obama hails step towards 'more hopeful world'". Reuters. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- ^ "Saudi crown prince: If Iran develops nuclear bomb, so will we". CBS News. 15 March 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
- ^ Landau, Noa (30 April 2018). "Netanyahu: Iran Nuclear Deal Is Based on Lies – Here's the Proof". Haaretz. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
- ^ "In Case Of US Withdrawal Iran Will Stay In Nuclear Deal, If Others Also Stay". Radio Farda. 7 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar (21 December 2022). "Saudi Arabia wants dialogue after Jordan meeting: Iran minister". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
- ^ "Saudi minister says 'all bets off' if Iran gets nuclear weapon". Al Jazeera. 11 December 2022. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
- ^ "Davos 2023: Saudi FM says Riyadh trying to find path to dialogue with Iran" Reuters. Accessed 17 January 2023.
- ^ a b Gans, Jared (11 March 2023). "Five things to know about the Iran-Saudi deal brokered by China". The Hill. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
- ^ Hafezi, Parisa; Abdallah, Nayera; Yaakoubi, Aziz El (10 March 2023). "Iran and Saudi Arabia agree to resume ties in talks brokered by China". Reuters. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
- ^ Williams, Alison, ed. (10 March 2023). "Reaction to Iran and Saudi Arabia resuming ties". Reuters.
- ^ Yousaf, Kamran (10 March 2023). "Pakistan welcomes Saudi-Iran rapprochement". The Express Tribune.
- ^ "Indonesia Sambut Baik Normalisasi Hubungan Arab Saudi-Iran" [Indonesia Welcomes the Normalization of Relations between Saudi Arabia and Iran] (in Indonesian). VOA Indonesia. 13 March 2023.
- ^ "Malaysia welcomes restoration of Saudi Arabia-Iran diplomatic ties". The Star. 12 March 2023.
- ^ a b Wintour, Patrick (10 March 2023). "Iran and Saudi Arabia agree to restore ties after China-brokered talks". The Guardian.
- ^ Lazaroff, Tovah (10 March 2023). "Saudi-Iran deal destroys Israel's defense wall against Iran, Yair Lapid says". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
- ^ "Iran and Saudi Arabia agree to resume relations after years of tension". NPR. Associated Press. 10 March 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
- ^ Nereim, Vivian (10 March 2023). "Saudi Arabia and Iran Agree to Restore Ties, in Talks Hosted by China". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
- ^ "Iran to halt weapon supplies to Houthis as part of deal with Saudi Arabia: Report". Al-Arabiya. 16 March 2023. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023.
- ^ "Iran's Raisi 'welcomes' invitation to visit Saudi Arabia following reconciliation deal france24. Accessed 9 April 2023.
External links
edit- Saudi Arabia-Iran Proxy War OWP The Organization for World Peace