The Freedom and Accord Party (Ottoman Turkish: حریت و ایتلاف فرقه سی, romanized: Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası)[1] was a liberal Ottoman political party active between 1911–1913 and 1918–1919, during the Second Constitutional Era.[2] It was the most significant opposition to Union and Progress in the Chamber of Deputies. The political programme of the party advocated for Ottomanism, government decentralisation, the rights of ethnic minorities, and close relations with Britain.[3] In the post-1918 Ottoman Empire, the party became known for its attempts to suppress and prosecute the CUP. In both of its periods of existence, the party quickly descended into infighting and impotence.
Freedom and Accord Party [حریت و ایتلاف فرقه سی] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |script= (help) Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası | |
|---|---|
| Abbreviation | H-İ or HİF |
| Leader | Damat Ferid Pasha Müşir Fuat Pasha Miralay Sadık Şerif Pasha |
| Founded | November 21, 1911 |
| Dissolved | 1919 |
| Preceded by | Liberty Party |
| Headquarters | Şehzadebaşı, Istanbul |
| Newspaper | Teminat Mes'ûliyet |
| Military wing | Saviour Officers |
| Ideology | Liberalism Conservatism Ottomanism Decentralisation Civic nationalism Constitutionalism |
Name
editThe Freedom and Accord Party (Turkish: Hürriyet ve İtilâf Fırkası)[1] is sometimes conflated with its predecessor, the Liberty Party, and the two organizations are often known collectively as the Liberal Union or the Liberal Entente. In the Ottoman Empire, its members were known as İtilâfçılar or İtilafists, who were opposed to members of the rival Union and Progress Party İttihadcılar or Ittihadists (literally Unionists).
Base and members
editAlbanians from the Ottoman Empire played a prominent role in the party, such as Basri Bey Dukagjini from Debre (modern Debar), Hasan Prishtina and Midhat Frashëri (the son of Abdyl Frashëri, who served as a deputy representative for the Yanya Vilayet in the Ottoman Parliament) who were among its eleven founders.[3]
Notable members included Mehmed Sabahaddin, Kâmil Pasha, Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı, Ali Kemal, Refik Halit Karay, Rıza Nur, Mehmed Hâdî Pasha, Damat Ferid Pasha, Mehmed Rauf Pasha, Mizancı Murat, Gümülcineli İsmail, Reşat Halis, and Lütfi Fikri.
Origins
editSabahaddin's Private Enterprise and Decentralization League, which advocated for administrative decentralization, eventually organized itself into the Liberty Party to participate in the 1908 election, proving to be the Committee of Union and Progress's (CUP) main opponent. It was suppressed and eventually disbanded following the 31 March Incident. Various smaller parties existed between 1910 and 1911 that proved to be ineffective as opposition to the CUP.
History
edit1911–1913
editThe Freedom and Accord Party declared itself a party on November 21, 1911, and immediately attracted 70 deputies to its ranks.[4][3] On 24 November it had its first party congress, where Damat Ferid Pasha was made president and Miralay Sadık vice president. Nearly 100 branches of the party were opened in Istanbul and Anatolia.
Only 20 days after its formation, Freedom and Accord won a significant by-election in Constantinople by one vote.[5] It was the main challenger to the CUP during the April 1912 elections, which the Committee rigged in favor of itself, giving Freedom and Accord only 6 seats of 275 total.[6] The rigged election caused uprisings in many provinces, until pro-İtilafist officers known as the Savior Officers issued a memorandum to the pro-CUP Grand Vizier Mehmed Said Pasha, who was forced to resign.[citation needed] Ahmed Muhtar Pasha's suprapartisan Great Cabinet followed, which was supported by the Savior Officers and Freedom and Accord.[citation needed]
Catastrophe in the First Balkan War lead to the collapse of this government, and Kâmil Pasha, who was an ardent anti-Unionist, returned to the premiership with the hope to sign a more favorable peace settlement in London to end the war, and also to ban the CUP. At a party congress held on June 2–9, 1912, Müşir Fuat Pasha was elected as the party president, though he left the party by 1 January 1913. During the Balkan War, the party came under the influence of Miralay Sadık and Gümülcineli İsmail Hakkı, who planned to overthrow the Kâmil Pasha government in a putsch on January 25, 1913.[citation needed] However the CUP undertook a coup d'état two days before they could on 23 January 1913, and İsmail Enver forced Kâmil Pasha to resign the premiership at gun point. The purges following the coup targeted anti-Unionist opposition, most of whome were arrested or fled abroad. Şerif Pasha, was appointed as the chairman of party organization abroad, and Sadık as the vice chairman, but Şerif Pasha also resigned shortly thereafter.
At the end of March a plot was discovered by an associate of Prince Sabahaddin, forcing Sabahaddin and Dr. Nihat Reşat (Belger) to flee abroad. The CUP took advantage of Grand Vizier Mahmut Şevket Pasha's assassination on 11 June 1913 to crush all opposition completely. Most İtilafists were sentenced to death in absentia. 322 people (601 people according to Burhan Felek), who were known anti-Unionists were exiled to Sinop.
For 5 years the party was practically defunct, though party leaders established relations with Britain and denounced the Unionist dictatorship. It was re-established in the aftermath of the World War I.
1918–1920
editWith the Ottoman Empire losing on all fronts in by the end of WWI, Talat Pasha's government fell. A general amnesty was declared and exiles from Sinop and abroad began to return to Constantinople.
On November 17, 1918, Mustafa Sabri Efendi a former deputy of Tokat, declared the reorganization of the Freedom and Accord Party. In the following days, news emerged that Freedom and Accord branches were opened in various parts of the country. In a meeting held on January 10, 1919, the Freedom and Accord Party was officially re-established. The new board of directors consisted mostly of elderly and retired state officials close to the palace. Former chairman Damat Ferit Pasha did not join the party. Mustafa Sabri, Ali Kemal, Rıza Tevfik, and Refik Halit (Karay), former and active members of the party, took part in its management. The most important spokespersons of the party in the press were Ali Kemal and Refi Cevat (Ulunay). The party was supported by the Sultan, Mehmed VI.
Some members of the party advocated for the Ottoman Empire to become a League of Nations Mandate, an attitude that was also initially considered by a few ex-Unionists. However the leadership were united in having close relations with Britain, and many joined the Friends of England Association.
The party fiercely opposed the Turkish nationalist movement for being unreconstructed Unionists, which they blamed for all problems the Ottoman Empire faced post-war. When this attack didn't work their organs accused them of being Bolsheviks. While Ottoman politicians were anticipating the call of a new election after the dissolution of parliament, Freedom and Accord reopened its branches in Istanbul in other provinces, though it found no support in Anatolia. 8 May 1919, Miralay Sadık returned to Istanbul from Egypt, and once again took over the leadership of the party.
The first cabinet of Damat Ferit Pasha, which was established on March 3, 1919, was generally regarded as the "Government of Freedom and Accord". In reality, the party had no real share in power, except by contributing one or two members to the government. According to Refik Halit (Karay), Ferit Pasha "used the party like a winter cardigan."[7] On June 25, Freedom and Accord's central committee declared that there was no relationship between the government and the party, and announced any Accordist minister still in cabinet had to choose between loosing their job or their party affiliation.[8] On July 21, the central committee declared the government of Damat Ferit illegitimate and demanded his immediate resignation. The Ministry of the Interior issued a warning that it would not tolerate partisan intervention in the government. Mustafa Sabri and Miralay Sadık disagreed with carrying out the ultimatum, until Sabri attempted to establish a new party called the National Conservative Party.[9]
In the last Ottoman parliamentary elections held in November 1919, Freedom and Accord and the groups that split from it boycotted the election. The election resulted in a decisive victory of the pro-Association for the Defense of National Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia party known as Felah-ı Vatan.[10]
When Sabri wasn't appointed Sheikhulislam in the 4th Ferid Pasha government, Sadık took the opportunity to do a party takeover, purging him and his supporters. This led to the foundation of the Moderate Freedom and Accord Party on 1 June 1920, temporarily lead by Rıza Tevfik. This party entered the 5th Ferid Pasha government, but was opposed by Sâdık Bey and his supporters in the original Freedom and Accord Party, who were now considered extremists. Divided and politically bankrupt, the Freedom and Accord Party could not exert any political power for the rest of the Ottoman Empire's history, and gradually lost its strength as the Turkish Nationalist Movement gained traction. Most members fled the Ottoman Empire after the Great Offensive and were put on the list of 150 personae non gratae.
Media
editThe most notable newspaper known as the media organ of the party is Mesûliyet (27 August-15 September 1919), which was only published nineteen issues by Balalı Şehsüvarzâde Hacı Osman Bey, the treasurer of the party.[11] Other pro-Freedom and Accord newspapers included the Tanzimat, Teminat, Şehrah, İkdam, İktiham, Sabah and Yeni Gazete.
Elections
edit| Election year
votes |
Seats won | +/– | Position |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1912 | 6 / 275
|
New | Opposition |
See also
editReferences
editNotes
edit- ^ a b Aydoğdu, Nergiz (2020-12-25). "Türk Siyasal Düşüncesinde "Egemenlik" Anlayışının Dönüşümü: Milli Meşrutiyet Fırkasının "Milli Egemenlik" Yorumu" [Transformation of the Concept of “Sovereignty” in Turkish Political Thought: "National Sovereignty" Interpretation of the National Constitutional Monarchy Party]. Turkish Studies - Economics, Finance, Politics. 15 (4): 1917–1936. doi:10.47644/TurkishStudies.46452 – via TRDizin.
- ^ "The Ottoman Empire | History of Western Civilization II". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 2024-05-06.
- ^ a b c Gawrych 2006, p. 190.
- ^ Birinci 1990, p. 84.
- ^ Burak 2003, p. 307.
- ^ Kayalı, Hasan (1995). "Elections and the Electoral Process in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1919" (PDF). International Journal of Middle East Studies. pp. 265–286. doi:10.1017/s0020743800062085. S2CID 44470151.
- ^ Sina Akşin, İstanbul Hükümetleri ve Milli Mücadele, Cem Yay. 1983, sf. 205.
- ^ Akşin, a.g.e. sf. 374.
- ^ A.g.e. sf. 448.
- ^ Hanioglu, M. Sükrü (2017-12-31). Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Muslim Communism? The Turkish War of Independence. doi:10.1515/9781400885572-011. ISBN 978-1-4008-8557-2.
- ^ TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi C.18 Sh.509
Sources
edit- Birinci, Ali (1990), Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası (in Turkish), Istanbul: Dergah Yayınları, ISBN 9759953072
- Burak, Durdu Mehmet (2003), "Osmanlı Devleti'nde Jön Türk Hareketinin Başlaması ve Etkileri" (PDF), OTAM Ankara (in Turkish), Ankara University: 292–318, doi:10.1501/OTAM_0000000502, archived from the original (PDF) on 27 October 2011, retrieved 17 March 2013
- Gawrych, George (2006). The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913. London: IB Tauris. ISBN 9781845112875.
- Kieser, Hans-Lukas (26 June 2018), Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide, Princeton University Press (published 2018), ISBN 978-0-691-15762-7
- Erdem, Ş. Can, Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası