Lichen products, also known as lichen substances, are organic compounds produced by a lichen. Specifically, they are secondary metabolites. Lichen products are represented in several different chemical classes, including terpenoids, orcinol derivatives, chromones, xanthones, depsides, and depsidones. Over 800 lichen products of known chemical structure have been reported in the scientific literature, and most of these compounds are exclusively found in lichens.[1] Examples of lichen products include usnic acid (a dibenzofuran), atranorin (a depside), lichexanthone (a xanthone), salazinic acid (a depsidone), and isolichenan, an α-glucan. Many lichen products have biological activity, and research into these effects is ongoing.[2]
Biosynthesis
editMost lichen products are biochemically synthesized via the acetyl-polymalonyl pathway (also known as polyketide pathway), while only a few originate from the mevalonate and shikimate biosynthetic pathways.[3]
Occurrence
editLichen products accumulate on the outer walls of the fungal hyphae, and are quite stable. Crystal deposits can be visualised using scanning electron microscopy.[4] For this reason, even very old herbarium specimens can be analysed.[5] The amount of lichen products in lichen (as a percentage of dry weight) is typically between 0.1%–10%, although in some instances it may be as high as 30%.[6] They are usually found in the medulla, or less commonly, the cortex.[7]
In 1907, Wilhelm Zopf identified and classified about 150 lichen products. Seventy years later, this number had risen to 300, and by 1995, 850 lichen products were known;[8] as of 2021, more than 1000 have been identified.[9] Analytical methods were developed in the 1970s using thin-layer chromatography for the routine identification of lichen products.[10][11] More recently, published techniques demonstrate ways to more efficiently harvest secondary metabolites from lichen samples.[12]
| Chemical isolate | Lichen source | Researched activity and uses |
|---|---|---|
| Atranorin | Cetraria islandica | Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial[13][14] |
| Constipatic acid | Xanthoparmelia | |
| Lichexanthone | Hypotrachyna osseoalba | |
| Portentol | Roccella portentosa | Anticancer[15] |
| Salazinic acid | Parmotrema, Bulbothrix | Antibacterial[16][17] |
| Usnic acid | Usnea | Antibacterial,[18] adrenergic activity[19] |
Use in taxonomy
editLichen products play a crucial role in differentiating lichenised fungi, particularly in groups where morphological characteristics are less distinct. This approach is notably applied in the genus Lepraria, which lacks sexual reproduction and ascomata (fruiting bodies), typically key features for species identification.[20] Similarly, in genera with more complex structures like the crustose genus Ochrolechia,[21] and the fruticose Cladonia,[22][23] the presence, absence, or substitution of specific lichen products is frequently used to distinguish species, especially when these variations align with differences in geographical distribution.[24]
References
edit- ^ Ranković & Kosanić 2019, p. 1.
- ^ Molnár, Katalin; Farkas, Edit (2010). "Current Results on Biological Activities of Lichen Secondary Metabolites: a Review". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C. 65 (3–4): 157–173. doi:10.1515/znc-2010-3-401. PMID 20469633.
- ^ Stocker-Wörgötter, Elfie; Cordeiro, Lucimara Mach Cortes; Iacomini, Marcello (2013). "Accumulation of Potential Pharmaceutically Relevant Lichen Metabolites in Lichens and Cultured Lichen Symbionts". Studies in Natural Products Chemistry. Vol. 39. Elsevier. pp. 337–380. doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-62615-8.00010-2. ISBN 978-0-444-62615-8.
- ^ Stocker-Wörgötter, Elfie (2008). "Metabolic diversity of lichen-forming ascomycetous fungi: culturing, polyketide and shikimatemetabolite production, and PKS genes". Natural Product Reports. 25 (1): 188–200. doi:10.1039/b606983p. PMID 18250902.
- ^ Culberson, Chicita F.; Elix, john A. (1989). "Lichen Substances". Methods in Plant Biochemistry. Vol. 1. pp. 509–535. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-461011-8.50021-4. ISBN 9780124610118.
- ^ Ranković & Kosanić 2019, p. 4.
- ^ Ranković & Kosanić 2019, p. 5.
- ^ Culberson, Chicita F.; Culberson, William Louis (2001). "Future directions in lichen chemistry". The Bryologist. 104 (2): 230–234. doi:10.1639/0007-2745(2001)104[0230:FDILC]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 3244888.
- ^ Kalra, Rishu; Conlan, Xavier A.; Goel, Mayurika (2021). "Lichen allelopathy: a new hope for limiting chemical herbicide and pesticide use". Biocontrol Science and Technology. 31 (8): 773–796. doi:10.1080/09583157.2021.1901071.
- ^ Culberson, Chicita F.; Kristinsson, Hör-Dur (1970). "A standardized method for the identification of lichen products". Journal of Chromatography A. 46: 85–93. doi:10.1016/s0021-9673(00)83967-9.
- ^ Culberson, Chicita F. (1972). "Improved conditions and new data for identification of lichen products by standardized thin-layer chromatographic method". Journal of Chromatography A. 72 (1): 113–125. doi:10.1016/0021-9673(72)80013-x. PMID 5072880.
- ^ Komaty, Sarah; Letertre, Marine; Dang, Huyen Duong; Jungnickel, Harald; Laux, Peter; Luch, Andreas; Carrié, Daniel; Merdrignac-Conanec, Odile; Bazureau, Jean-Pierre; Gauffre, Fabienne; Tomasi, Sophie; Paquin, Ludovic (2016). "Sample preparation for an optimized extraction of localized metabolites in lichens: Application to Pseudevernia furfuracea" (PDF). Talanta. 150: 525–530. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2015.12.081. PMID 26838439.
- ^ Studzinska-Sroka, Elzbieta; Galanty, Agnieszka; Bylka, Wieslawa (7 November 2017). "Atranorin - An Interesting Lichen Secondary Metabolite". Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 17 (17): 1633–1645. doi:10.2174/1389557517666170425105727. PMID 28443519.
- ^ Jaeck, Andreas. "Atranorin". www.internetchemie.info.
- ^ Cheng, Bichu; Trauner, Dirk (2015-11-04). "A Highly Convergent and Biomimetic Total Synthesis of Portentol". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 137 (43): 13800–13803. doi:10.1021/jacs.5b10009. ISSN 0002-7863. PMID 26471956.
- ^ Candan, Mehmet; Yılmaz, Meral; Tay, Turgay; Erdem, Murat; Türk, Ayşen Özdemir (2007-08-01). "Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of the Lichen Parmelia sulcata and its Salazinic Acid Constituent". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C. 62 (7–8): 619–621. doi:10.1515/znc-2007-7-827. ISSN 1865-7125. PMID 17913083.
- ^ Manojlović, Nedeljko; Ranković, Branislav; Kosanić, Marijana; Vasiljević, Perica; Stanojković, Tatjana (October 2012). "Chemical composition of three Parmelia lichens and antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of some their major metabolites". Phytomedicine. 19 (13): 1166–1172. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2012.07.012. PMID 22921748.
- ^ "Wikispaces".
- ^ Harris N. J. (1961), Honors Thesis, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts
- ^ Lendemer, James C. (2011). "A taxonomic revision of the North American species of Lepraria s.l. that produce divaricatic acid, with notes on the type species of the genus L. incana". Mycologia. 103 (6): 1216–1229. doi:10.3852/11-032. PMID 21642343.
- ^ Kukwa, Martin (2011). The lichen genus 'Ochrolechia' in Europe. Gdańsk; Sopot: Fundacja Rozwoju Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. ISBN 978-83-7531-170-9.
- ^ Stenroos, Soili (1989). "Taxonomy of the Cladonia coccifera group. 1". Annales Botanici Fennici. 26: 157–168.
- ^ Timsina, Brinda A.; Hausner, Georg; Piercey-Normore, Michele D. (2014). "Evolution of ketosynthase domains of polyketide synthase genes in the Cladonia chlorophaea species complex (Cladoniaceae)". Fungal Biology. 118 (11): 896–909. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2014.08.001. PMID 25442293.
- ^ Lumbsch, H. Thorsten; Leavitt, Steven D. (2011). "Goodbye morphology? A paradigm shift in the delimitation of species in lichenized fungi". Fungal Diversity. 50 (1): 59–72. doi:10.1007/s13225-011-0123-z.
Cited literature
edit- Ranković, Branislav; Kosanić, Marijana (2019). "Lichens as a potential source of bioactive secondary metabolites". In Ranković, Branislav (ed.). Lichen Secondary Metabolites. Bioactive Properties and Pharmaceutical Potential (2 ed.). Springer Nature Switzerland AG. p. 13. ISBN 978-3-030-16813-1.