Wikipedia

Disaster

(Redirected from List of cataclysms)
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 7 November 2024.
For other uses, see Disaster (disambiguation).

A disaster is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone.[1][2] Natural disasters like avalanches, floods, earthquakes, and wildfires are caused by natural hazards.[3] Human-made disasters like oil spills, terrorist attacks and power outages are caused by people. Nowadays, it is hard to separate natural and human-made disasters because human actions can make natural disasters worse.[4][5][6] Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen.

Ruins from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, one of the worst disasters in the history of the United States

Disasters usually hit people in developing countries harder than people in wealthy countries. Over 95% of deaths from disasters happen in low-income countries, and those countries lose a lot more money compared to richer countries. For example, the damage from natural disasters is 20 times greater in developing countries than in industrialized countries.[7][8] This is because low-income countries often do not have well-built buildings or good plans to handle emergencies.

To reduce the damage from disasters, it is important to be prepared and have fit for purpose infrastructure. Disaster risk reduction (DRR) aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. It focuses on actions to reduce risk before a disaster occurs, rather than on response and recovery after the event. DRR and climate change adaptation measures are similar in that they aim to reduce vulnerability of people and places to natural hazards.

When a disaster happens, the response includes actions like warning and evacuating people, rescuing those in danger, and quickly providing food, shelter, and medical care. The goal is to save lives and help people recover as quickly as possible. In some cases, national or international help may be needed to support recovery. This can happen, for example, through the work of humanitarian organizations.

Definitions

edit
 
Painting of the Cathedral and the Academy building after the Great Fire of Turku, by Gustaf Wilhelm Finnberg, 1827

The UN defines a disaster as "a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale".[9]: 13  It results from hazards in places where people live in exposed or vulnerable conditions. Some human failures make communities vulnerable to climate hazards. These are poor planning or development, or a lack of preparation.[10]

Disasters are events that have an effect on people. A hazard that overwhelms or injures a community is considered a disaster.[11] The international disaster database EM-DAT defines a disaster as “a situation or event that overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request for external assistance at the national or international level; it is an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering.”[12] The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.[9]: 13 

UNDRO (1984) defined a disaster in a more qualitative fashion as:[13] "an event, concentrated in time and space, in which a community undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented." Like other definitions this looks beyond the social aspects of the disaster impacts. It also focuses on losses. This raises the need for emergency response as an aspect of the disaster.[14] It does not set out quantitative thresholds or scales for damage, death, or injury.[citation needed]

A study in 1969 defined major disasters as conforming to the following criteria, based on the amount of deaths or damage:[14][15] At least 100 people dead, at least 100 people injured, or at least $1 million damage. This definition includes indirect losses of life caused after the initial onset of the disaster. These could be the effects of diseases such as cholera or dysentery arising from the disaster. This definition is still commonly used. However it is limited to the number of deaths, injuries, and damage in money terms.[14]

Types

edit

The scale of a disaster matters. Small-scale disasters only affect local communities but need help beyond the affected community. Large-scale disasters affect wider society and need national or international help.[9]

It is usual to divide disasters into natural or human-made. Recently the divide between natural, man-made and man-accelerated disasters has become harder to draw.[4][16][6] Some manufactured disasters such as smog and acid rain have been wrongly attributed to nature.[17]

edit
Main article: Natural disaster

Disasters with links to natural hazards are commonly called natural disasters. However experts have questioned this term for a long time.[18]

Disasters with links to natural hazards
Example Profile
Avalanche The sudden, drastic flow of snow down a slope, occurring when either natural triggers, such as loading from new snow or rain, or artificial triggers, such as explosives or backcountry skiers.
Blizzard A severe snowstorm characterized by very strong winds and low temperatures
Earthquake The shaking of the Earth's crust, caused by underground volcanic forces of breaking and shifting rock beneath the Earth's surface
Fire (wild) Fires that originate in uninhabited areas and which pose the risk to spread to inhabited areas (see also Wildfire § Climate change effects)
Flood Flash flooding: Small creeks, gullies, dry streambeds, ravines, culverts or even low-lying areas flood quickly (see also Effects of climate change)
Freezing rain Rain occurring when outside surface temperature is below freezing
Heat wave A prolonged period of excessively hot weather relative to the usual weather pattern of an area and relative to normal temperatures for the season (see also Effects of climate change § Heat waves and temperature extremes).
Landslide Geological phenomenon which includes a range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows
Lightning strike An electrical discharge caused by lightning, typically during thunderstorms
Limnic eruption The sudden eruption of carbon dioxide from deep lake water
Tropical cyclone Rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls (see also Tropical cyclones and climate change)
Tsunami A series of waves hitting shores strongly, mainly caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake, usually caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water
Volcanic eruption The release of hot magma, volcanic ash and/or gases from a volcano
This section is an excerpt from Natural disaster.[edit]
 
Economic loss risk for six natural disasters: tropical cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, floods, landslides, and volcanoes.

A natural disaster is the very harmful impact on a society or community after a natural hazard event. Some examples of natural hazard events include avalanches, droughts, earthquakes, floods, heat waves, landslides, tropical cyclones, volcanic activity and wildfires.[19] Additional natural hazards include blizzards, dust storms, firestorms, hails, ice storms, sinkholes, thunderstorms, tornadoes and tsunamis.[19] A natural disaster can cause loss of life or damage property. It typically causes economic damage. How bad the damage is depends on how well people are prepared for disasters and how strong the buildings, roads, and other structures are.[20] Scholars have been saying that the term natural disaster is unsuitable and should be abandoned.[21] Instead, the simpler term disaster could be used. At the same time the type of hazard would be specified.[22][23][24] A disaster happens when a natural or human-made hazard impacts a vulnerable community. It results from the combination of the hazard and the exposure of a vulnerable society.

Nowadays it is hard to distinguish between natural and human-made disasters.[21][25][26] The term natural disaster was already challenged in 1976.[24] Human choices in architecture,[27] fire risk,[28][29] and resource management[30] can cause or worsen natural disasters. Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen. These "climate hazards" are floods, heat waves, wildfires, tropical cyclones, and the like.[31]

Some things can make natural disasters worse. Examples are inadequate building norms, marginalization of people and poor choices on land use planning.[21] Many developing countries do not have proper disaster risk reduction systems.[32] This makes them more vulnerable to natural disasters than high income countries. An adverse event only becomes a disaster if it occurs in an area with a vulnerable population.[33][34]

Unrelated to natural hazards

edit
See also: Hazard
 
Airplane crashes and terrorist attacks are examples of man-made disasters: they kill and injure people, destroy and damage property, and cause pollution. One example is the September 11 attacks in 2001 at the World Trade Center in New York City.

Human-made disasters are serious harmful events caused by human actions and social processes. Technological hazards also fall into this category. That is because they result in human-instigated disasters. Human-made hazards are sometimes called anthropogenic hazards.[9]: 18  Examples include criminality, social unrest, crowd crushes, fires, transport accidents, industrial accidents, power outages, oil spills, terrorist attacks, and nuclear explosions/nuclear radiation.[35] Catastrophic climate change, nuclear war, and bioterrorism also fall into this category.

Climate change and environmental degradation are sometimes called socio-natural hazards. These are hazards involving a combination of both natural and human factors.[9] : 18  All disasters can be regarded as human-made, because of failure to introduce the right emergency management measures.[36]

Famines may be caused locally by drought, flood, fire or pestilence. In modern times there is plenty of food globally. Long-lasting local shortages are generally due to government mismanagement, violent conflict, or an economic system that does not distribute food where needed.[37]

Disasters without links to natural hazards
Disaster Profile
Bioterrorism The intentional release or dissemination of biological agents as a means of coercion
Civil unrest A disturbance caused by a group of people that may include sit-ins and other forms of obstructions, riots, sabotage and other forms of crime, and which is intended to be a demonstration to the public and the government, but can escalate into general chaos
Fire (urban) Even with strict building fire codes, people still perish in fires
Hazardous material spills The escape of solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property or the environment, from their intended controlled environment such as a container.
Nuclear and radiation accidents An event involving the significant release of radioactivity to the environment or a reactor core meltdown and which leads to major undesirable consequences to people, the environment, or the facility
Power failure Caused by summer or winter storms, lightning or construction equipment digging in the wrong location

Others

edit

Complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific hazard may also spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami. This results in coastal flooding, damaging a nuclear power plant on the coast. The Fukushima nuclear disaster is a case in point. Experts examine these cascading events to see how risks and impacts can amplify and spread. This is particularly important given the increase in climate risks.[38]: 143–145 

Some researchers distinguish between recurring events like seasonal flooding and unpredictable one-off events.[39] Recurring events often carry an estimate of how often they occur. Experts call this the return period.

Impacts

edit
Further information: Natural disaster § Impacts

The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.[9]: 13 

The Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) records statistics about disasters related to natural hazards. For 2023, EM-DAT recorded 399 disasters, which was higher than the 20-year average of 369.[12]

Economic losses

edit

Between 2016 and 2020 the total reported economic losses amounted to $293 billion. This figure is likely to be an underestimation. It is very challenging to measure the costs of disasters accurately, and many countries lack the resources and technical capacity to do so.[40]: 50  Over the 40-year period from 1980 to 2020 losses were estimated at $5.2 trillion.

Human impacts

edit

In 2023, natural hazard-related disasters resulted in 86,473 fatalities and affected 93.1 million people.[12] Whilst the number of deaths was much higher than the 20-year average of 64,148, the number affected was much lower than the 20-year average of 175.5 million.

According to a UN report, 91% of deaths from hazards from 1970 to 2019 occurred in developing countries.[41] These countries already have higher vulnerability and lower resilience to these events, which exacerbates the effects of the hazards.

Effects of climate change

edit

Hazards such as droughts, floods, and cyclones are naturally occurring phenomena.[42] However, climate change has caused these hazards to become more unreliable, frequent and severe. They thus contribute to disaster risks. Countries contributing most to climate change are often at the lowest risk of feeling the consequences.[43] As of 2019, countries with the highest vulnerability per capita release the lowest amount of emissions per capita, and yet still experience the most heightened droughts and extreme precipitation.[43]

Prevention and response

edit

Disaster risk reduction

edit
 
Disaster risk reduction progress score for some countries in 2011. The score of 5 is best. Assessments include four indicators that reflect the degree to which countries have prioritized disaster risk reduction and the strengthening of relevant institutions.[44]
This section is an excerpt from Disaster risk reduction.[edit]

Disaster risk reduction aims to make disasters less likely to happen. The approach, also called DRR or disaster risk management, also aims to make disasters less damaging when they do occur. DRR aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. In technical terms, it aims to make them more resilient or less vulnerable. When DRR is successful, it makes communities less the vulnerable because it mitigates the effects of disasters.[45] This means DRR can make risky events fewer and less severe. Climate change can increase climate hazards. So development efforts often consider DRR and climate change adaptation together.[46]

It is possible to include DRR in almost all areas of development and humanitarian work. People from local communities, agencies or federal governments can all propose DRR strategies. DRR policies aim to "define goals and objectives across different timescales and with concrete targets, indicators and time frames."[45]: 16 

Disaster response

edit
This section is an excerpt from Disaster response.[edit]
 
Relief camp at Bhuj after the 2001 Gujarat earthquake

Disaster response refers to the actions taken directly before, during, or immediately after a disaster. The objective is to save lives, ensure health and safety, and meet the subsistence needs of the people affected.[47]: 16  It includes warning and evacuation, search and rescue, providing immediate assistance, assessing damage, continuing assistance, and the immediate restoration or construction of infrastructure. An example of this would be building provisional storm drains or diversion dams. Emergency response aims to provide immediate help to keep people alive, improve their health and support their morale. It can involve specific but limited aid, such as helping refugees with transport, temporary shelter, and food. Or it can involve establishing semi-permanent settlements in camps and other locations. It may also involve initial repairs to damage to infrastructure, or diverting it.

The response phase focuses on keeping people safe, preventing the next disasters and meeting people's basic needs until more permanent and sustainable solutions are available. The governments where the disaster has happened have the main responsibility for addressing these needs. Humanitarian organisations are often present in this phase of the disaster management cycle. This is particularly so in countries where the government does not have the resources for a full response.

Etymology

edit

The word disaster is derived from Middle French désastre which comes from Old Italian disastro. This in turn comes from the Ancient Greek pejorative prefix δυσ- (dus-) "bad"[48] and ἀστήρ (aster), "star".[49] So the word disaster ("bad star" in Greek) comes from an astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the position of planets.[50]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ "What is a disaster?". www.ifrc.org. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
  2. ^ "Disasters & Emergencies: Definitions" (PDF). Addis Ababa: Emergency Humanitarian Action. March 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 November 2015. Retrieved 26 November 2017 – via World Health Organization International.
  3. ^ "Natural Hazards | National Risk Index". hazards.fema.gov. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
  4. ^ a b "Why natural disasters aren't all that natural". openDemocracy. 26 November 2020. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  5. ^ Gould, Kevin A.; Garcia, M. Magdalena; Remes, Jacob A.C. (1 December 2016). "Beyond 'natural-disasters-are-not-natural': the work of state and nature after the 2010 earthquake in Chile". Journal of Political Ecology. 23 (1): 93. doi:10.2458/v23i1.20181.
  6. ^ a b Smith, Neil (11 June 2006). "There's No Such Thing as a Natural Disaster". Items. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  7. ^ "World Bank: Disaster Risk Management".
  8. ^ Luis Flores Ballesteros. "Who's getting the worst of natural disasters?" 54Pesos.org, 4 October 2008 Archived 3 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ a b c d e f UNGA (2016). Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology for disaster risk reduction. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
  10. ^ "Why natural disasters aren't all that natural". www.preventionweb.net. 14 September 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
  11. ^ Zibulewsky, Joseph (April 14, 2001). "Defining disaster: the emergency department perspective". National Library of Medicine. Retrieved October 21, 2023.
  12. ^ a b c CRED. 2023 Disasters in Numbers: Climate in Action. (2024). https://files.emdat.be/reports/2023_EMDAT_report.pdf
  13. ^ Smith 1996 quoted in Kraas, Frauke (2008). "Megacities as Global Risk Areas". In Marzluff, John (ed.). Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 588. ISBN 9780387734125. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
  14. ^ a b c Smith, Keith (1992). Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster. Routledge Physical Environment Series (first ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9780415012171.
  15. ^ Hewitt, K.; Sheehan, L. (1969). A Pilot Survey of Global Natural Disasters the Past Twenty Years (Report). Natural Hazards Research Working Paper, No. 11. Toronto: University of Toronto. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
  16. ^ Gould, Kevin A.; Garcia, M. Magdalena; Remes, Jacob A.C. (1 December 2016). "Beyond 'natural-disasters-are-not-natural': the work of state and nature after the 2010 earthquake in Chile". Journal of Political Ecology. 23 (1): 93. doi:10.2458/v23i1.20181.
  17. ^ Didi Kirsten Tatlow (15 December 2016). "Don't Call It 'Smog' in Beijing, Call It a 'Meteorological Disaster". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022.
  18. ^ Cannon, Terry. (1994). Vulnerability Analysis and The Explanation Of 'Natural' Disasters. Disasters, Development and Environment.
  19. ^ a b "Natural Hazards | National Risk Index". hazards.fema.gov. FEMA. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
  20. ^ G. Bankoff; G. Frerks; D. Hilhorst, eds. (2003). Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People. Routledge. ISBN 1-85383-964-7.[page needed]
  21. ^ a b c "Why natural disasters aren't all that natural". openDemocracy. 26 November 2020. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  22. ^ Kevin Blanchard #NoNaturalDisasters – Changing the discourse of natural disaster reporting (16 November 2018)
  23. ^ Cannon, Terry. (1994). Vulnerability Analysis and The Explanation Of 'Natural' Disasters. Disasters, Development and Environment.
  24. ^ a b "Why natural disasters aren't all that natural". preventionweb.net. 14 September 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
  25. ^ Gould, Kevin A.; Garcia, M. Magdalena; Remes, Jacob A.C. (1 December 2016). "Beyond 'natural-disasters-are-not-natural': the work of state and nature after the 2010 earthquake in Chile". Journal of Political Ecology. 23 (1): 93. doi:10.2458/v23i1.20181.
  26. ^ Smith, Neil (11 June 2006). "There's No Such Thing as a Natural Disaster". Items. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  27. ^ Coburn, Andrew W.; Spence, Robin JS; Pomonis, Antonios (1992). "Factors determining human casualty levels in earthquakes: mortality prediction in building collapse" (PDF). Proceedings of the tenth world conference on earthquake engineering. Vol. 10. pp. 5989–5994. ISBN 978-90-5410-060-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  28. ^ "Wildfire Causes and Evaluations (U.S. National Park Service)". NPS.gov Homepage (U.S. National Park Service). 27 November 2018. Archived from the original on 1 January 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  29. ^ DeWeerdt, Sarah (15 September 2020). "Humans cause 96% of wildfires that threaten homes in the U.S." Anthropocene. Archived from the original on 10 December 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  30. ^ Smil, Vaclav (18 December 1999). "China's great famine: 40 years later". BMJ. 319 (7225): 1619–1621. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7225.1619. PMC 1127087. PMID 10600969.
  31. ^ McGuire, Bill (2012). Waking the Giant: How a changing climate triggers earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959226-5. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2020.[page needed]
  32. ^ Zorn, Matija (2018), Pelc, Stanko; Koderman, Miha (eds.), "Natural Disasters and Less Developed Countries", Nature, Tourism and Ethnicity as Drivers of (De)Marginalization: Insights to Marginality from Perspective of Sustainability and Development, Perspectives on Geographical Marginality, vol. 3, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 59–78, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-59002-8_4, ISBN 978-3-319-59002-8, retrieved 8 June 2022
  33. ^ D. Alexander (2002). Principles of Emergency planning and Management. Harpended: Terra publishing. ISBN 1-903544-10-6.
  34. ^ B. Wisner; P. Blaikie; T. Cannon & I. Davis (2004). At Risk – Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters. Wiltshire: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25216-4.[page needed]
  35. ^ Cueto, Lavinia Javier; Agaton, Casper Boongaling (2021). "Pandemic and Typhoon: Positive Impacts of a Double Disaster on Mental Health of Female Students in the Philippines". Behavioral Sciences. 11 (5): 64. doi:10.3390/bs11050064. PMC 8147095. PMID 33946801.
  36. ^ Blaikie, Piers, Terry Cannon, Ian Davis & Ben Wisner. At Risk – Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters, Wiltshire: Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0-415-25216-4
  37. ^ "Famine". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
  38. ^ Ara Begum, R., R. Lempert, E. Ali, T.A. Benjaminsen, T. Bernauer, W. Cramer, X. Cui, K. Mach, G. Nagy, N.C. Stenseth, R. Sukumar, and P. Wester, 2022: Chapter 1: Point of Departure and Key Concepts. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 121–196, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.003.
  39. ^ L. Bull-Kamanga; K. Diagne; A. Lavell; E. Leon; F. Lerise; H. MacGregor; A. Maskrey; M. Meshack; M. Pelling (1 April 2003). "From everyday hazards to disasters: the accumulation of risk in urban areas". Environment and Urbanization. 15 (1): 193–204. Bibcode:2003EnUrb..15..193B. doi:10.1177/095624780301500109. ISSN 0956-2478. S2CID 17439273.
  40. ^ UNDRR (2023). The Report of the Midterm Review of the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. UNDRR: Geneva, Switzerland.
  41. ^ "Concept Note: International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction 2023". United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  42. ^ Ara Begum, R., R. Lempert, E. Ali, T.A. Benjaminsen, T. Bernauer, W. Cramer, X. Cui, K. Mach, G. Nagy, N.C. Stenseth, R. Sukumar, and P. Wester, 2022: Chapter 1: Point of Departure and Key Concepts. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 121–196, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.003
  43. ^ a b IPCC, 2023: Sections. In: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, H. Lee and J. Romero (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 35-115, doi: 10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647
  44. ^ "Disaster risk reduction progress score". Our World in Data. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  45. ^ a b UNGA (2016). Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology for disaster risk reduction. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
  46. ^ McBean, Gordon; Rodgers, Caroline (2010). "Climate hazards and disasters: the need for capacity building". WIREs Climate Change. 1 (6): 871–884. Bibcode:2010WIRCC...1..871M. doi:10.1002/wcc.77. ISSN 1757-7780.
  47. ^ UNGA (2016). Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
  48. ^ "Dus, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus".
  49. ^ "Aster, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus".
  50. ^ "Disaster" in Etymology online
edit
 
The Wikibook History has a page on the topic of: Historical Disasters and Tragedies
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disaster&oldid=1255988537"