Wikipedia

Mixed brigade

(Redirected from Mixed Brigade)
This article is about the Spanish military unit. For the Japanese formation, see Mixed Brigades (Imperial Japanese Army).

Mixed brigade (Spanish: brigada mixta) was a basic tactical military unit of the Republican army during the Spanish Civil War. It was initially designed as "pocket division", an innovative maneuverable combined-arms formation. Because of high saturation with specialized troops and services it would have resembled a division, but in terms of manpower it would have been much smaller and amount to some 3,700 men.

Mixed Brigades
Brigadas Mixtas
Standard of the 106 Mixed Brigade of the Popular Army of the Spanish Republic
Active1936–1939
Country Spanish Republic
BranchSpanish Republican Armed Forces
TypeInfantry brigade
RoleHome Defence
Part ofSpanish Republican Army divisions
EngagementsSpanish Civil War
Commanders
Notable
commanders		Enrique Líster
José María Galán

Shortages of career officers and NCOs plus inability to provide arms and equipment needed rendered the original mixed brigade pattern unworkable. The Republican general staff kept redrafting the scheme with decreasing proportion of non-infantry sub-units, though even these arrangements proved impossible to implement. Most of the 188 mixed brigades raised during the war were closer to the infantry regiment blueprint.

Assumptions about the nature of the warfare which gave rise to the mixed brigade concept were largely correct. However, the Republic could not have afforded such highly-specialized and well-equipped units. Attempts to implement the scheme put extra strain on the Republican recruitment and logistics system; as a result, the mixed brigade scheme was counterproductive and worked to the detriment of the Republican military capacity.

Origins

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Spanish soldiers during the Rif War

Origins of the mixed brigade concept are not clear and in historiography there are various theories which point to its beginnings. One is related to debates within the Spanish general staff of the 1920s; banking on experiences of the Rif War, some officers suggested formation of relatively small, flexible combined-arms units.[1] In the early 1930s and influenced by Swiss attempts,[2] two Brigadas Mixtas were ordered to be formed as Spanish mountain troops.[3] During further discussions of the mid-1930s the idea that the Spanish army should include a large number of autonomous units smaller than división organica was gradually taking root.[4]

A somewhat competitive theory claims that the concept was merely an acknowledgement of warfare reality during first weeks of the Civil War. During July, August and September 1936 most fighting took place between improvised, relatively small, lightly armed and highly maneuverable groups, usually referred to as "columns". The Republican general staff reportedly concluded that they should turn this makeshift model into a systematic and structured scheme and units raised in this way should emphasize mobility and flexibility rather than manpower.[5] One more theory credits Soviet military advisers, present in Spain since early October 1936, for coining the concept;[6] one version of this theory holds that the Soviets merely encouraged the Republican general staff to implement the idea which had already been in circulation for some time.[7]

Underlying concept: "pocket division"

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BM organigram

The basic assumption which triggered emergence of the mixed brigade concept was that the war in Spain would be about flexibility rather than manpower. Such a vision elicited the idea that the key army unit should be able to operate independently, without support of other specialized units typically assigned to larger military formations (e.g. unlike a typical infantry regiment, which requires support of other divisional services to achieve military objectives). This in turn produced a conclusion that the key army unit should be a highly maneuverable, combined-arms formation.

The resulting vision was "a cross between a reinforced regiment and a very small division",[8] a "little great unit",[9] "division en miniatura"[10] or a "pocket division": a unit which in terms of manpower would be much smaller than a division, but which would reproduce some of divisional features by means of large proportion of specialized and support sub-units. This vision was eventually embodied in a scheme of a "mixed brigade"; the term "mixed" was to indicate its combined-arms composition, making it different from a typical infantry unit of comparable size.[11] Mixed brigades were supposed to operate independently and to be grouped into a larger formation only for the purpose of waging a particular campaign or battle, but not as its permanent components.

Theoretical composition

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The original scheme as worked out in 1936 envisioned that a mixed brigade would be made of 3,700 soldiers.[12] Internal composition was to be as follows:

  • brigade staff
  • 4 infantry battalions. Each battalion was to consist of 4 infantry companies, 1 machine-gun company and 1 platoon of mortars. In comparison the regular army division, named "división orgánica", was composed of 2 brigades, each brigade composed of 2 regiments, each regiment composed of 3 battalions[13]
  • 1 field artillery group. It was to be composed of 4 batteries of medium artillery (usually 75 mm guns) and 1 battery of heavy artillery (usually 105 mm guns). In comparison the regular army division was to consist of 1 regiment of light artillery and 1 regiment of heavy howitzers[14]
  • 1 cavalry squadron (in alternative versions replaced with motorized infantry). In comparison the regular army division was also to include 1 squadron, on wartime footing enlarged to 1 cavalry regiment[15]
  • 1 pioneer company. The regular army division was to incorporate 1 battalion of pioneers[16]
  • 1 motorized reconnaissance squadron[17]
  • 1 communication and logistics group. It was to consist of dedicated communication (including radio transmission), intendancy and supply-logistics sub-units
  • other support sub-units, including a sanitary and medical detachment

In terms of manpower the mixed brigade as originally envisioned was in-between a regular army infantry regiment and a regular brigade. In terms of firepower it would have been stronger than a brigade. In most European armies of the late 1930s (which unlike the Spanish army did not feature brigades as fixed divisional units[18]) it would have been comparable to a very strong regiment.[19] In terms of modus operandi and because of its general autonomy a mixed brigade was somewhat resemblant of a division.

Implementation problems

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Republican infantry

Not a single unit has ever been raised in line with the original plan, all units named brigadas mixtas differed significantly and then very significantly from the scheme, and the entire original concept remained largely on paper. Initially the reason were pressing wartime necessities; the Nationalist army was approaching Madrid and half-formed units were thrown into battle before they reached the structure envisioned.[20] Later it turned out that the Republic was unable to provide all weapons and equipment needed, and that shortage of NCOs and officers made it impossible to ensure their sufficient number even for traditional army units. Finally, in later stages of the war the increasingly dramatic military situation forced Republican high command to raise troops in non-systematic, makeshift manner.[21]

Because of problems with raising mixed brigades in line with the original plan, the Republican general staff was continuously re-drafting their structure; the change was generally about reducing the weight of non-infantry components[22] and enlarging infantry battalions (eventually from 633 to 828 men).[23] The result was decreasing firepower and increasing manpower of the entire unit; final versions of the brigada mixta scheme envisioned its strength as some 4,200 people, though less than a half would serve in frontline combat sub-units.[24] However, neither these revised plans have been implemented and brigada mixta theoretical schemes as developed in 1937-1938 remained a blueprint intended, but never fully put into practice.[25]

Practice

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Republican artillery

The concept of mixed brigades was discussed during sittings of the Republican government in late September 1936;[26] the first known military document which refers to raising of these units is dated 18 October 1936[27] and the first 6 units were created shortly.[28] By December 1936 there were 15 brigades deployed,[29] and by the spring of 1937 there were 40 units operational.[30] Those formed in central Spain were numbered 1-50, those raised in the Levante and Andalusia were numbered 51-82, whose those built in the North were numbered until 189.[31] The last brigade formed was numbered 246 and was created in December 1938,[32] though the number of units actually raised which entered combat was around 190.[33] Most of the build-up process was controlled by the military. Manpower was provided by distributing pre-war regiments among the brigades,[34] by incorporating earlier militia units active on the front, and then by regular draft (though there were also volunteers).[citation needed]

Units raised as mixed brigades resembled rather a traditional infantry regiment.[35] Their strength was some 3,500 men, though the number of rifles available was below 2,000;[36] in practice an average unit counted some 1,600-1,800 rifles.[37] In all 188 units created there were only 49 career officers acting either as commanders or chiefs of staff.[38] Non-infantry sub-units were increasingly smaller; as general staff experts noted artillery was too dispersed, to gain critical mass guns and howitzers were shifted to divisional units.[39] Deployment of mixed brigades differed significantly from the original plan; instead of operating as autonomous units, they were grouped by 3 into divisions[40] and remained their fixed components. However, the concept of brigada mixta resulted in some change of divisional tactics. Though in terms of manpower (some 14,000 people)[41] comparable to a Nationalist division,[42] the Republican division was more loosely organized and its sub-components retained much greater autonomy.[43]

Evaluation

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Republican armor

Scholars note that the underlying assumptions which gave rise to the mixed brigade concept were basically correct, and that the nature of warfare during the Spanish Civil War indeed favored mobility, flexibility and autonomy over structure, manpower and hierarchical organization. They also note that the innovative idea of creating combined-arms units below the divisional level was later successfully implemented during World War Two in form of the improvised German Kampfgruppen.[44] However, they also noted that the mixed brigade scheme was one that the Republic could not have afforded, and that attempts to implement it produced more harm than good.

The key point raised is that mixed brigades required even more specialists, NCOs, and career officers than pre-war brigades; as the Republic faced dramatic shortages of skilled military men, enforcing the scheme made matters even worse.[45] Another point is that the Republic was unable to provide sufficient equipment and arms, and as a result non-infantry sub-units remained to a large extent an under-armed and under-equipped fiction. Splitting up the artillery gravely reduced firepower.[46] Finally, it is noted that the mixed brigade pattern was a "waste of men", as an unusually high proportion of soldiers were assigned to non-combat roles.[47] One military historian claims that "thanks to the decision to adopt the mixed brigade as its basic unit, the People's Army was crippled as a fighting force almost from its very inception".[48]

Favorable comments are related not that much to the mixed brigade itself, but rather to its role within larger military units. It is noted that divisions formed from mixed brigades were more flexible, and that loose organisation of such divisions allowed greater efficiency when manoeuvre and relatively open front determined the nature of military operations.[49] However, otherwise the mixed-brigade-based organisation might have contributed to chaos.[50]

Mixed Brigades

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The Mixed Brigades of the International Brigades are in Roman numerals.

1st to 100th

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Number Establishment date Disbandment date Observations
1st 10 October 1936 9 February 1939 From the Fifth Regiment.
2nd 13 October 1936 February 1939 Included railroad workers.
3rd October 1936 March 1939 (?)[51] Carabineros unit.[52]
4th November 1936 March 1939
5th October 1936 28 March 1939 Carabineros unit.
6th October 1936 March 1939
7th 27 March 1937 27 March 1939
8th 27 March 1937 27 March 1939 Carabineros unit. Formerly "Brigada M".
9th 23 January 1937 9 February 1939 Initially known as 1st Brigada Mixta Bis.
10th 21 December 1936 9 February 1939 Initially known as 1st Brigada móvil choque.
XI[53] 22 February 1936 February 1939
XII[54] 1 November 1936 9 February 1939
XIII 1 December 1936 February 1939 Former "Columna Temple y Rebeldía".
XIV 1 December 1936 25 September 1938
XIV Bis 27 November 1937 23 February 1938 XIV offshoot organized by Jules Dumont.[55][56]
XV[57] 31 January 1937 February 1939 Lincoln Battalion part of this brigade.
16th December 1936 March 1939
17th December 1936 28 March 1939
18th November 1936 28 March 1939
19th December 8936 31 January 1939
20th November 1936 March 1939
21st December 1936 17 January 1939
22nd November 1936 March 1939 Former "Columna Peire".
23rd October 1936 January 1939
24th December 1936 January 1939
25th November 1936 March 1939
26th October 1936 28 March 1939
27th December 1936 28 March 1939
28th October 1936 March 1939
29th October 1936 28 March 1939 Former "Columna Cuevas".
30th 31 December 1936 March 1939
31st 2 January 1937 February 1939
32nd 31 December 1936 March 1939 Former "Columna Mangada".
33rd 6 January 1937 4 February 1939
34th 1 January 1937 27 March 1939 Former "Columna Robledo".
35th 1 January 1937 March 1939
36th 1 January 1937 March 1939 Took part in the so-called "Usera Tunnel Scam".
37th 31 December 1936 February 1939
38th 31 December 1936 February 1939 Former "Columna Perea".
39th 26 November 1936 March 1939 Former "Columna Palacios".
40th 26 November 1936 27 March 1939 Former "Columna Ortega".
41st 26 November 1936 March 1939
42nd 1 January 1937 March 1939 Included the Elche Battalion.[58]
43rd 26 November 1936 27 March 1939 Former "Columna Escobar".
44th 31 December 1936 27 March 1939
45th 31 December 1936 27 March 1939 Former "Columna Burillo".
46th 31 December 1936 March 1939
47th 31 December 1936 March 1939
48th 28 March 1937 March 1939
49th February 1937 February 1939 terminated after the bombing of Xàtiva.
50th February 1937 March 1939
51st 14 March 1937 March 1939
52nd January 1937 March 1939
53rd January 1937 March 1939
54th March 1937 March 1939
55th 1 March 1937 March 1939
56th January 1937 February 1939
57th 1 January 1937 March 1939
58th January 1937 March 1939
59th January 1937 9 February 1937 Former "Columna Rosal".
60th January 1937 4 February 1939 Former "Columna Rosal".
61st January 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Rosal".
62nd December 1936 January 1939 (?)
63rd December 1936 March 1939
64th December 1936 March 1939
65th December 1936 March 1939 Carabineros unit.
66th December 1936 March 1939
67th February 1937 March 1939
68th January 1937 February 1939
69th December 1936 March 1939
70th 15 January 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna España Libre".
71st January 1937 27 March 1939
72nd January 1937 February 1939 Re-established after surviving the Battle of Bielsa.[59]
73rd March 1937 March 1939
74th January 1937 27 March 1939
75th February 1937 March 1939
76th April 1937 March 1939
77th February 1937 March 1939
78th February 1937 March 1939
79th February 1937 March 1939
80th February 1937 March 1939
81st March 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Iberia" and "Columna Torres-Benedito".
82nd March 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Hierro" and "Primera Columna confederal".
83rd March 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Hierro".
84th March 1937 January 1938 Former "Columna Hierro" and "Columna Temple y Rebeldía".
Terminated after the "Mora de Rubielos events".
Re-established on 19 April 1938
Took part in the Battle of the Ebro.
Disappeared during the Catalonia Campaign.
85th March 1937 March 1939 Carabineros unit.
86th March 1937 28 March 1939 Originally Brigada móvil Puertollano in December 1936.
Reorganized as International Brigade.[60]
87th March 1937 March 1939 Carabineros unit.
88th March 1937 27 March 1939 Former "Columna Andalucía-Extremadura".
89th March 1937 March 1939
90th May 1937 March 1939
91st March 1937 March 1939 Destroyed in the Battle of Mérida pocket (1938)
Later re-established.
92nd March 1937 March 1939 Originally known as 75th Brigada Mixta.
93rd January 1937 February 1939 (?) Originally known as 53rd Brigada Mixta.
94th March 1937 9 February 1939 Originally established upon the former "Columna Iberia".
Terminated in September 1937 after the Battle of Brunete.
Reason: ineptitude during combat.
Re-established with Infantería de Marina forces.
95th June 1937 9 February 1939 Originally established with Anarchist militias.
Terminated following the Battle of Brunete.
Reason: ineptitude during combat.
Re-established with Infantería de Marina forces.
96th June 1937 March 1939
97th June 1937 March 1939 (?)
98th 1 June 1937 March 1939
99th 12 June 1937 March 1939
100th June 1937 9 February 1939 Shock troops of the 11th Division.

101st to 200th

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Number Establishment date Disbandment date Observations
101st May 1937 9 February 1939 Shock troops of the 46th Division.
102nd March 1937 9 February 1939 Formed from the remainders of the "72nd Mixed Brigade".
103rd March 1937 March 1939
104th March 1937 February 1939
105th March 1937 March 1939
106th March 1937 March 1939
107th March 1937 March 1939
108th March 1937 March 1939
109th Spring 1937 March 1939 Annihilated in the Battle of Mérida pocket (1938).
110th March 1937 March 1937
111th 17 March 1937 27 March 1939
112th April 1937 28 March 1939
113th March 1937 27 March 1939
114th March 1937 26 March 1939
115th March 1937 March 1939
116th 28 April 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Sur-Ebro".
117th 28 April 1937 January 1939 Former "Columna Sur-Ebro". Fell apart in Catalonia.
118th 28 April 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Sur-Ebro".
119th 28 April 1937 February 1939 Former "Columna Durruti".
120th 28 April 1937 January 1939 Former "Columna Durruti".
121st 28 April 1937 January 1939 Former "Columna Durruti".
122nd 28 April 1937 January 1939 Disbanded after the Battle of the Ebro.
123rd 28 April 1937 January 1939 Disbanded after the Battle of the Ebro.
124th 28 April 1937 January 1939 Disbanded after the Battle of the Ebro.
125th 28 April 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Ascaso" and "Columna Los Aguiluchos de la FAI".
126th 28 April 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Ascaso".
127th 28 April 1937 27 March 1939 Former "Columna Ascaso" and "Columna Roja y Negra".
128th 28 April 1937 October 1937 Disbanded and re-established more than once.
CXXIX 8 February 1938 28 March 1939 It lost its International Battalions in October 1938.[61]
130th 28 April 1937 9 February 1939 Re-established after escaping the Bielsa pocket.[62]
131st 28 April 1937 9 February 1939
132nd 11 June 1937 28 March 1939 Former "Columna Macià-Companys".
133rd May 1937 January 1939
134th May 1937 26 January 1939
135th May 1937 February 1939
136th 1 May 1937 February 1939
137th 1 May 1937 February 1939
138th 1 May 1937 March 1939
139th 1 May 1937 February 1939
140th 1 May 1937 February 1939
141st May 1937 February 1939
142nd May 1937 12 February 1939
143rd May 1937 16 January 1939 Annihilated in Gaià
144th May 1937 January 1939
145th May 1937 January 1939
146th May 1937 23 January 1939
147th 1 May 1937 March 1939 Former "Columna Maroto".
148th 9 May 1937 March 1939
149th May 1937 February 1939
150th 11 June 1937 March 1939
CL[63] 27 May 1937 4 August 1937 Disbanded after the debacle at Brunete.
151st June 1937 January 1939 Formed with Infantería de Marina troops.
152nd June 1937 March 1939 Carabineros unit.
153rd June 1937 26 January 1939 Former "Columna Terra i Llibertat".
154th January 1938 March 1939 Former 1st Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
155th January 1938 March 1939 Former 2nd Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
156th January 1938 March 1939 Former 3rd Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
157th January 1938 March 1939 Former 4th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
158th January 1938 March 1939 Former 5th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
159th January 1938 March 1939 Former 6th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
160th January 1938 March 1939 Former 7th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
161st January 1938 March 1939 Former 8th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
162nd January 1938 March 1939 Former 9th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
163rd January 1938 March 1939 Former 13th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
164th January 1938 March 1939 Former 11th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
165th January 1938 March 1939 Former 12th Basque Brigade; re-established as guerrilla unit.
166th 6 August 1937 October 1937 Former 1st Santander Brigade.
167th 6 August 1937 21 August 1937 Former 2nd Santander Brigade.
168th 6 August 1937 21 August 1937 Former 3rd Santander Brigade.
169th 6 August 1937 September 1937 Former 8th Santander Brigade.
170th 6 August 1937 21 August 1937 Former 4th Santander Brigade.
171st 6 August 1937 21 August 1937 Former 5th Santander Brigade.
172nd 6 August 1937 21 August 1937 Former 6th Santander Brigade.
173rd 6 August 1937 25 August 1937 Former 7th Santander Brigade.
174th 30 April 1938 January 1939 (?) Former 9th Santander Brigade.
175th 30 April 1938 March 1939 Former 10th Santander Brigade.
176th 30 April 1938 February 1939 Former 11th Santander Brigade.
177th 30 April 1938 January 1939 (?) Former 12th Santander Brigade.
177th 30 April 1938 2 January 1939 (?) Former 14th Santander Brigade.
179th 19 April 1938 February 1939 Carabineros unit.[64]
180th 30 April 1938 March 1939 Former 16th Asturian Brigade.
181st 30 April 1938 March 1939
182nd 30 April 1938 March 1939 Fate unknown
183rd 30 April 1938 March 1939 Former 3rd Asturian Brigade.
184th 6 August 1937 21 October 1937 Former 10th Asturian Brigade.
185th 6 August 1937 September 1937 Former 15th Asturian Brigade.
186th 6 August 1937 October 1937 Former 13th Asturian Brigade.
187th 6 August 1937 October 1937 Former 14th Asturian Brigade.
188th 6 August 1937 October 1937 Former 17th Asturian Brigade.
189th 30 April 1938 March 1939 Former 1st Asturian Brigade.
190th 30 April 1938 March 1939 Former 2nd Asturian Brigade.
191st 30 April 1938 March 1939 Formed from remainders of the 4th Basque Brigade
and the 8th Santander Brigade.
192nd 30 April 1938 March 1939 Former 5th Asturian Brigade.
193rd 30 April 1938 March 1939 Former 6th Asturian Brigade.
194th 22 May 1938 March 1939 Former 4th Asturian Brigade.
195th 22 May 1938 March 1939 Former 7th Asturian Brigade.
196th 22 May 1938 January 1939 Fell apart in Catalonia.[65]
197th 22 May 1938 March 1939
198th 30 April 1938 January 1939 Fell apart in Catalonia along with the 196th and 199th
199th 30 April 1938 January 1939 Fell apart in Catalonia along with the 196th and 198th
200th May 1938 28 March 1939 Ordered to retreat from the front in January 1939.[66]

201st to 246th

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Number Establishment date Disbandment date Observations
201st 30 April 1938 28 March 1939
202nd 30 April 1938 29 March 1939
203rd May 1938 March 1939
204th 30 April 1938 March 1939
205th May 1938 March 1939
206th[67] May 1938 March 1939
207th May 1938 March 1939
208th April 1938 March 1939
209th August 1937 March 1939
210th August 1937 March 1939
211th August 1937 March 1939 Carabineros unit.
212th 28 August 1937 March 1939
213th 24 August 1937 January 1939 (?)
214th 24 August 1937 March 1939
215th 24 August 1937 March 1939
216th 24 August 1937 March 1939
217th 24 August 1937 March 1939
218th 24 August 1937 March 1939
219th[68] 24 August 1937 26 March 1939
220th 24 August 1937 26 March 1939
221st 24 August 1937 March 1939 Fate unknown
222nd Summer 1937 March 1939 Carabineros unit. Fate unknown
223rd Summer 1937 March 1939 Engaged in coastal defence.[69]
224th Summer 1937 January 1939 (?) Restructured in spring 1938.[70]
225th Summer 1937 March 1939 Coastal defence
226th Summer 1937 9 February 1939 part of the 42nd Division
227th 22 April 1938 9 February 1939
228th December 1938 January 1939 Carabineros unit.
229th December 1938 January 1939 (?)
230th February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
231st February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
232nd February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
233rd February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
234th February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
235th February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
236th February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
237th February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
238th February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
239th February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
240th February 1938 Data lacking Guerrilla unit.
241st December 1938 Unknown Did not see combat action before disbandment.
242nd December 1938 February 1939
243rd December 1938 Unknown Did not see combat action before disbandment.
244th December 1938 Unknown Did not see combat action before disbandment.
245th December 1938 February 1939
246th January 1939 Unknown Could not be fully established before the
Eastern Region Army Group fell apart.[71]

See also

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Bibliography

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  • Alpert, Michael (2013); The Republican Army in the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107028739
  • Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999). Historia de las Brigadas Mixtas del Ejército Popular de la República. Madrid: Almena. ISBN 978-8-492-26447-6.
  • Helen Graham (2003). The Spanish Republic at War 1936-1939. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521459327.
  • Salas Larrazábal, Ramón (2006); Historia del Ejército Popular de la República. La Esfera de los Libros S.L. ISBN 84-9734-465-0

References

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  1. ^ José Vicente Herrero Pérez, De la división orgánica a la brigada mixta (evolución de las grandes unidades en España 1914-1927), [in:] Revista de Historia Militar XLVI/93 (2003), p. 115
  2. ^ Michael Alpert, The Republican Army in the Spanish Civil War, Cambridge 2008, ISBN 9781107028739, p. 73
  3. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 116
  4. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 117-118
  5. ^ Alpert 2007, p. 73; other authors tend to downplay the theory, compare Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 118
  6. ^ Alexander Clifford, The People's Army in the Spanish Civil War: A Military History of the Republic and International Brigades, 1936–1939, Philadelphia 2020, ISBN 9781526760937, p. 23
  7. ^ Alpert 2007, pp. 73-74
  8. ^ Charles J. Esdaile, The Spanish Civil War. A Military History, London/New York 2019, ISBN 9781138311275, p. 100
  9. ^ Clifford 2020, p. 28
  10. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 118
  11. ^ Alpert 2007, p. 71
  12. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 119
  13. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 112-113
  14. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 113
  15. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 112
  16. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 113
  17. ^ E. R. Hooton, Spain in Arms: A Military History of the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939, London 2019, ISBN 978-1612006376, p. 43
  18. ^ most armies of the mid-1930s followed a triangular pattern, with an infantry division composed of 3 regiments, a regiment composed of 3 battalions, and a battalion composed of 3 companies. Spanish division with its binar structure was a bit of an exception. Also, in most European armies brigades were specialized army units, e.g. cavalry brigades in the Polish army or panzer brigades in the Wehrmacht, though brigades were regular units of some British infantry divisions
  19. ^ German infantry regiment in 1917 was 3,832 men, W. Schilling, The Organization of Armies, [in:] Columbia service; Italian infantry regiment of early World War Two was 3,279 men, Regio Esercito. L'Organizzazione, [in:] RegioEsercito service; US infantry regiment of 1944 was 3,118 men, Regio Esercito. L'Organizzazione, [in:] RegioEsercito service; Polish infantry regiment of 1939 was 3,300 men, Zdzisław Jagiełło: Piechota Wojska Polskiego 1918-1939, Warszawa 2007, ISBN 9788311102064, p. 30; Wehrmacht infantry regiment of early World War Two was 3,049 men, Nigel Thomas, The German army in World War II, London 2002, ISBN 9781841766164, p. 10
  20. ^ Alpert 2007, p. 74
  21. ^ Clifford 2020, p. 24
  22. ^ e.g. already in November 1936 the field artillery component was reduced to 3 batteries, plus antitank company and a mortar support group, Hooton 2019, p. 43
  23. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 119
  24. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 119-120
  25. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 121
  26. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 119
  27. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 118-119
  28. ^ they were commanded by 3 career army officers, 1 Carabineros officer, 1 civilian who underwent training in the Soviet military academy and 1 lawyer. Alpert 2007, p. 75
  29. ^ Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War, London 2001, ISBN 9780375755156, p. 526
  30. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 530
  31. ^ Alpert 2007, p. 75
  32. ^ Carlos Engel Masóliver, Historia de las Brigadas Mixtas del Ejército Popular de la República, 1936-1939, Madrid 2005, ISBN 9788496170193, p. 228
  33. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 125
  34. ^ Alpert 2007, p. 76
  35. ^ "shortages of equipment meant many BM were purely infantry formations, sometimes 1,500-2,000 men", Hooton p. 43, see also Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 121
  36. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 122-123
  37. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 123
  38. ^ and most served at a rank not higher than a captain in 1936, Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 125
  39. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 124, Herrero Pérez 2017, p. 250
  40. ^ though some divisions were formed by 4 and some by 2 mixed brigades, José Vicente Herrero Pérez, The Spanish Military and Warfare from 1899 to the Civil War, London 2017, ISBN 9783319547466, Herrero Pérez 251
  41. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 119
  42. ^ the Nationalist division as reorganized during the war was composed of 12 battalions; the Republican one, if at full strength, was also 12 battalions, Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 127
  43. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 120
  44. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 115
  45. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 129
  46. ^ Esdaile 2019, p. 101
  47. ^ Clifford 2020, p. 26
  48. ^ Esdaile 2019, p. 101
  49. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 128, Herrero Pérez 2017, p. 250
  50. ^ Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 126
  51. ^ Date uncertain
  52. ^ "República - EPR - B.M." Retrieved 12 June 2016.
  53. ^ Antony Beevor (2006); p. 167
  54. ^ Hugh Thomas (1976); p. 528
  55. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 37
  56. ^ Herreros, Sebastià. "The International Brigades in the Spanish War 1936-1939: Flags and Symbols" (PDF). The Flag Institute.
  57. ^ Hugh Thomas (1976), p. 639
  58. ^ "¿...Y por qué no un blog...? : Fragmentos de metralla: el Batallón Elche en la red". Retrieved 12 June 2016.
  59. ^ Hugh Thomas (1976); p. 892
  60. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 114
  61. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 41
  62. ^ Hugh Thomas (1976); p. 892
  63. ^ Hugh Thomas (1976); p. 1035
  64. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 194
  65. ^ This was a Central Zone brigade that was sent by sea to Catalonia along with the 198th and 199th Mixed Brigades in December 1938 in order to support the republican troops there. After disembarking in Barcelona it was incapable of reorganizing itself and fell apart in the middle of the chaos provoked by the retreat towards the French border.
  66. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 204
  67. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 208
  68. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 219
  69. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 222
  70. ^ Suffered such heavy losses during the Aragon Offensive that it was no longer operational and was disbanded. Re-established anew on 19 April 1938.
  71. ^ Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 228
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