German units of measurement
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (February 2012) |
The units of measurement of German-speaking countries consist of a variety of units, with varying local standard definitions. While many were made redundant with the introduction of the metric system, some of these units are still used in everyday speech and even in stores and on street markets as shorthand for similar amounts in the metric system. For example, some customers ask for one pound (ein Pfund) of something when they want 500 grams.
The metric system became compulsory on 1 January 1872, in Germany and on 1 January 1876, in Austria.[1]
Some obsolete German units have names similar to units that were traditionally used in other countries, and that are still used in a limited number of cases in the United Kingdom (imperial units) and fully in the United States (United States customary units).
German system
editBefore the introduction of the metric system in German, almost every town had its own definitions of the units shown below. Often towns posted local definitions on a wall of the city hall. For example, the front wall of the old city hall of Rudolstadt (still standing) has two marks which show the “Rudolstädter Elle”, the proper length of the Elle in that city. Supposedly by 1810 there were 112 different standards for the Elle around Germany. [citation needed]
“...the measure of cloth, for example, was elle which in each region stood for a different length. An elle of textile material brought in Frankfurt would get you 54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg 65.6 cm, in Freiburg 53.5 cm...”
Length
editMeile (mile)
editA German geographic mile (geographische Meile) is defined as 1⁄15 equatorial degrees, equal to 7,420.54 m (24,345.6 ft). A common German mile, land mile, or post mile (Gemeine deutsche Meile, Landmeile, Postmeile) was defined in various ways at different places and different times. After the introduction of the metric system in the 19th century, the Landmeile was generally fixed at 7,500 m (24,606 ft) (the Reichsmeile), but before then there were many local and regional variants (of which some are shown below):
| Some kinds of Meile | ||
|---|---|---|
| Place | Distance in metres (feet) |
Notes |
| Breslau (Wrocław) | 6,700 m (22,000 ft) | Used in all Silesia[2][3] |
| Bavaria (Bayern) | 7,415 m (24,327 ft) | Connected to a 1⁄15 equatorial degree as 25,406 Bavarian feet. |
| Württemberg | 7,449 m (24,439 ft) | |
| Reichsmeile | 7.5 km (4.7 mi) 7,500 m (24,606 ft) |
'imperial mile' – New mile when the metric system was introduced. Prohibited by law in 1908. |
| Anhalt | 7,532 m (24,711 ft) | |
| Denmark, Prussia | 7,532 m (24,711 ft) | 24,000 Prussian feet. Also known as "(Dänische/Preußische) Landmeile". In 1816, king Frederick William III of Prussia adopted the Danish mile at 7,532 m (24,711 ft), or 24,000 Prussian feet. |
| Saxony (Sachsen) | 7,500 m (24,606 ft) | In the 17th–18th century or so, 9,062 m (29,731 ft) = 32,000 (Saxon) feet; later 7,500 m (24,606 ft) (as in Prussia and the rest of Germany). |
| Schleswig-Holstein | 8,803 m (28,881 ft) | |
| Baden | 8,000 m (26,247 ft) | 8889 m before 1810, 8,944 m (29,344 ft) before 1871 |
| Hesse-Kassel | 9,206 m (30,203 ft) | |
| Lippe-Detmold | 9,264 m (30,394 ft) | |
| Saxony (Sachsen) | 9,062 m (29,731 ft) | 32,000 (Saxon) feet (in the 19th century 7,500 m or 24,606 ft see above). |
| Westfalia (Westfalen) | 11,100 m (36,417 ft) | but also 9,250 m (30,348 ft) |
| Oldenburg | 9,894 m (32,461 ft) | |
| Rhineland (Rheinland) | 4,119 m (13,514 ft) | |
| Palatinate (Pfalz) | 4,630 m (15,190 ft) | |
| Osnabrück/France | 5,160 m (16,929 ft) | |
| Wiesbaden | 1,000 m (3,281 ft) | |
Wegstunde
editOne hour's travel, used up to the 19th century. In Germany 1⁄2 Meile or 3.71 km (2.31 mi). After 1722 in Saxony 1⁄2 post mile = 1000 Dresden rods = 4531 m.[4] In Switzerland 16,000 ft or 4.88 km.
Fuß (foot)
editThe Fuß or German foot varied widely from place to place in the German-speaking world, and also with time. In some places, more than one type of Fuß was in use. One source from 1830[5] gives the following values:
| Some kinds of Fuß | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Name | Local equivalent | Metric (Imperial/US) equivalents |
| Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) | Feldmaßfuß | 1⁄6 Klafter | 282 mm (11.10 in) |
| Aachen | Baufuß | 1⁄16 Ruthe | 288 mm (11.34 in) |
| Aargau, Canton of | Fuß | 300 mm (11.81 in) | |
| Aichstadt, Bavaria | old Fuß | 307 mm (12.09 in) | |
| Altona, Holstein | Fuß | 286 mm (11.26 in) | |
| Anspach, Bavaria | Werkfuß | 299 mm (11.77 in) | |
| Appenzell, Canton of | Fuß | 313 mm (12.32 in) | |
| Aschaffenberg, Bavaria | Fuß | 288 mm (11.34 in) | |
| Augsburg, Bavaria | Werkschuh | 296 mm (11.65 in) | |
| Baden | Reichsfuß | 10 Zoll, 1⁄10 Ruthe | 300 mm (11.81 in) |
| Baireuth, Bavaria | Fuß | 298 mm (11.73 in) | |
| Bamberg, Bavaria | Fuß | 303 mm (11.93 in) | |
| Basel, Canton of | Stadtschuh | 304 mm (11.97 in) | |
| Bavaria | Fuß | 292 mm (11.50 in) | |
| Bergamo, Austria | Fuß | 1⁄6 Cavezzo | 435 mm (17.13 in) |
| Berlin | Prussian Reichsfuß | 313.8536 mm (12.36 in)[6] | |
| Bern, Canton of | gewöhnlicher Fuß | 12 Zoll | 298 mm (11.73 in) |
| Bern, Canton of | Steinbrecherfuß | 13 Zoll | 317 mm (12.48 in) |
| Bohemia | Fuß or Stopa | 296 mm (11.65 in) | |
| Bozen, Austria | Tyroler-Fuß | 334 mm (13.15 in) | |
| Braunschweig (Brunswick) | Fuß | 1⁄16 Ruthe | 285 mm (11.22 in) |
| Bremen | Fuß | 1⁄16 Ruthe | 289 mm (11.38 in) |
| Breslau | old Silesian Fuß | 1⁄16 Ruthe | 283 mm (11.14 in) |
| Bünden, Canton of | churischer Fuß | 322 mm (12.68 in) | |
| Calenberg Land | Fuß | 1⁄16 Ruthe | 292 mm (11.50 in) |
| Carlsruhe (as Baden) | Fuß | 300 mm (11.81 in) | |
| Cassel, Hessen | Fuß | 1⁄14 Ruthe | 287 mm (11.30 in) |
| Cleve, Prussia | Fuß | 295 mm (11.61 in) | |
| Cöln am Rhein (Cologne), Prussia | Fuß | 287 mm (11.30 in) | |
| Cremona, Austria | old Fuß | 480 mm (18.90 in) | |
| Danzig, Prussia | old Fuß | 1⁄2 Elle | 287 mm (11.30 in) |
| Darmstadt | Hessian Reichsfuß | 10 Zoll | 250 mm (9.84 in) |
| Darmstadt | old Darmstadt Fuß | 12 Zoll | 288 mm (11.34 in) |
| Dordrecht, Netherlands | Fuß | 361 mm (14.21 in) | |
| Dresden, Saxony | Fuß | 260 mm (10.24 in) | |
| Duderstadt, Hanover | Fuß | 290 mm (11.42 in) | |
| Durlach (as Baden) | Fuß | 300 mm (11.81 in) | |
| Durlach | old Fuß | 291 mm (11.46 in) | |
| Emden, Hanover | Fuß | 296 mm (11.65 in) | |
| Erfurt, Prussia | old Fuß | 1⁄14 Feldruthe, 1⁄16 Bauruthe | 283 mm (11.14 in) |
| Frankfurt am Main | Fuß | 285 mm (11.22 in) | |
| Freiburg, Canton of | Werkfuß | 12 Zoll, 1⁄10 Werkklafter | 293 mm (11.54 in) |
| Friedberg in der Wetterau, Oberhessen | Fuß | 291 mm (11.46 in) | |
| Friedrichsstadt, Denmark | Fuß | 296 mm (11.65 in) | |
| Fulda, Kurhessen | Werkfuß | 1⁄2 Elle | 250 mm (9.84 in) |
| Genf (Geneva), Canton of | Fuß | 1⁄8 Ruthe | 325 mm (12.80 in) |
| Gießen, Oberhessen | Fuß | 298 mm (11.73 in) | |
| Glarus, Canton of | Fuß | 300 mm (11.81 in) | |
| Glatz, Prussia | Werkfuß | 287 mm (11.30 in) | |
| Göttingen, Hanover | Fuß | 291 mm (11.46 in) | |
| Gotha, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | Fuß | 287 mm (11.30 in) | |
| Halle an der Saale, Prussia | Werkfuß | 288 mm (11.34 in) | |
| Halle an der Saale, Prussia | Feldfuß | 433 mm (17.05 in) | |
| Hamburg | Fuß | 1⁄6 Klafter, 1⁄16 Geestruthe | 286 mm (11.26 in) |
| Hanau, Hessen | Fuß | 2⁄25 Ruthe | 285 mm (11.22 in) |
| Hanover, capital of the Kingdom | Fuß | 1⁄2 Elle, 1⁄16 Ruthe | 292 mm (11.50 in) |
| Heidelberg, Baden | Fuß | 278 mm (10.94 in) | |
| Heilbronn, Württemberg | Fuß | 278 mm (10.94 in) | |
| Heiligenstadt, Prussia | old Fuß | 283 mm (11.14 in) | |
| Herford, Prussia | old Fuß | 295 mm (11.61 in) | |
| Hildesheim, Hanover | Fuß | 1⁄16 Ruthe | 280 mm (11.02 in) |
| Holstein | Fuß | 296 mm (11.65 in) | |
| Innsbruck, Austria | Tyroler-Fuß | 317 mm (12.48 in) | |
| Königsberg, Prussia | old Fuß | 1⁄15 Ruthe | 307 mm (12.09 in) |
| Krakau | Fuß or Stopa | 356 mm (14.02 in) | |
| Lausanne, Canton of Waadt | Fuß | 293 mm (11.54 in) | |
| Leipzig, Saxony | gewöhnlicher Fuß | 1⁄2 Elle, 1⁄6 Klafter 1⁄16 Ruthe | 282 mm (11.10 in) |
| Lemberg, Austria | Galizian Fuß | 297 mm (11.69 in) | |
| Lemgo, Lippe | Fuß | 287 mm (11.30 in) | |
| Lindau, Bavaria | Fuß | 307 mm (12.09 in) | |
| Lindau, Bavaria | Feldmeßschuh, Bauschuh | 289 mm (11.38 in) | |
| Linz, Austria | Fuß | Klafter | 303 mm (11.93 in) |
| Lübeck | Fuß | 291 mm (11.46 in) | |
| Lucern, Canton of | Fuß (for wood measure) | 314 mm (12.36 in) | |
| Lucern, Canton of | Zimmerwerkschuh | 304 mm (11.97 in) | |
| Lucern, Canton of | Bau- and Feldmeßschuh | 284 mm (11.18 in) | |
| Milan, Austria | old Fuß | 398 mm (15.67 in) | |
| Mainz, Hessen | Werkfuß | 314 mm (12.36 in) | |
| Mainz, Hessen | Kameralfuß (for firewood) | 287 mm (11.30 in) | |
| Mannheim, Baden | Fuß | 290 mm (11.42 in) | |
| Mecklenburg | Fuß | 1⁄2 Elle, 1⁄16 Ruthe | 291 mm (11.46 in) |
| Metz, France | old Fuß | 406 mm (15.98 in) | |
| Mühlhausen, Prussia | Fuß | 1⁄16 Ruthe | 281 mm (11.06 in) |
| Neufchatel, Principality of | Werkfuß | 293 mm (11.54 in) | |
| Neufchatel, Principality of | Feldmeßfuß | 318 mm (12.52 in) | |
| Nordhausen, Prussia | old Fuß | 292 mm (11.50 in) | |
| Nuremberg, Bavaria | Stadtfuß | 1⁄16 Ruthe | 304 mm (11.97 in) |
| Nuremberg, Bavaria | Artillery Fuß | 292 mm (11.50 in) | |
| Oldenburg | Fuß | 1⁄20 Ruthe | 296 mm (11.65 in) |
| Osnabrück, Hanover | Fuß | 279 mm (10.98 in) | |
| Padua, Austria | Fuß | 1⁄6 Cavezzo | 428 mm (16.85 in) |
| Prague, Austria | Bohemian Fuß or Česká stopa | 296 mm (11.65 in) | |
| Prussia, Rheinland | Reichsfuß | 313.8536 mm (12.36 in)[6] | |
| Ratzeburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin | Fuß | 291 mm (11.46 in) | |
| Regensburg, Bavaria | Fuß | 313 mm (12.32 in) | |
| Rheinbaiern | Fuß | 12 Zoll, 1⁄3 metre | 333 mm (13.11 in) |
| Rheinland | Rheinländischer Fuß | 313.8536 mm (12.36 in)[6] | |
| Rostock, Mecklenburg-Schwerin | Fuß | 1⁄2 Elle, 1⁄16 Ruthe | 286 mm (11.26 in) |
| Sanct Gallen, Canton of | Fuß | 313 mm (12.32 in) | |
| Schaffhausen, Canton of | Fuß | 298 mm (11.73 in) | |
| Silesia (Austrian part) | Fuß | 289 mm (11.38 in) | |
| Solothurn, Canton of | Fuß | 293 mm (11.54 in) | |
| Stade, Hanover | Fuß | 291 mm (11.46 in) | |
| Stettin, Prussia | old Pomeranian Fuß | 285 mm (11.22 in) | |
| Stralsund, Prussia | old Fuß | 291 mm (11.46 in) | |
| Strassburg, France | Fuß | 289 mm (11.38 in) | |
| Stuttgart | Reichsfuß | 1⁄2 Elle, 1⁄10 Ruthe | 286 mm (11.26 in) |
| Tessin, Canton of | Fuß | 397 mm (15.63 in) | |
| Thorn, Prussia | old Fuß | 297 mm (11.69 in) | |
| Trento, Austria | Fuß | 366 mm (14.41 in) | |
| Trier, Prussia | Land- and Werkfuß | 294 mm (11.57 in) | |
| Trier, Prussia | Waldfuß | 310 mm (12.20 in) | |
| Trier, Prussia | Zimmermannsfuß | 305 mm (12.01 in) | |
| Tyrol, Austria | Fuß | 334 mm (13.15 in) | |
| Udine, Austria | Fuß | 329 mm (12.95 in) | |
| Ulm, Württemberg | Fuß | 289 mm (11.38 in) | |
| Venice, Austria | Fuß | 1⁄5 Passo | 348 mm (13.70 in) |
| Verden, Hanover | Fuß | 291 mm (11.46 in) | |
| Verona, Austria | Fuß | 1⁄6 Cavezzo | 347 mm (13.66 in) |
| Vienna, Austria | Fuß | 1⁄6 Klafter | 316 mm (12.44 in) |
| Waadt, Canton of | Fuß | 10 Zoll, 1⁄10 Ruthe | 300 mm (11.81 in) |
| Wallis, Canton of | Fuß | 325 mm (12.80 in) | |
| Weimar | Fuß | 282 mm (11.10 in) | |
| Wesel, Prussia | old Fuß | 236 mm (9.29 in) | |
| Wetzlar, Prussia | old Fuß | 274 mm (10.79 in) | |
| Wiesbaden, Nassau | Fuß | 288 mm (11.34 in) | |
| Wismar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin | Fuß | 292 mm (11.50 in) | |
| Wittenberg, Prussia | old Fuß | 283 mm (11.14 in) | |
| Worbis, Prussia | old Fuß | 286 mm (11.26 in) | |
| Württemberg | Reichsfuß | 1⁄2 Elle, 1⁄10 Ruthe | 286 mm (11.26 in) |
| Würzburg, Bavaria | Fuß | 1⁄2 Elle | 294 mm (11.57 in) |
| Zug, Canton of | Fuß | 301 mm (11.85 in) | |
| Zug, Canton of | Steinfuß | 268 mm (10.55 in) | |
| Zürich, Canton of | Fuß | 1⁄6 Klafter, 1⁄10 Ruthe | 301 mm (11.85 in) |
| Except where noted, based on Niemann (1830).[5] The values of the other local units mentioned also varied widely. | |||
Rute (rod)
edit
The Rute or Ruthe is of Carolingian origin,[citation needed] and was used as a land measure. Many different kinds of Ruthe were used at various times in various parts of the German-speaking world. They were subdivided into differing numbers of local Fuß, and were of many different lengths. One source from 1830[5] lists the following:
| Some kinds of Ruthe | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Name | Local equivalent | Metric (Imperial/US) equivalents |
| Aachen (Aix-la-Capelle) | Feldmeßruthe | 16 Fuß | 4.512 m (14 ft 9.6 in) |
| Baden | Ruthe | 10 Fuß | 3 m (9 ft 10 in) |
| Basel, Canton of | Ruthe | 16 Fuss | 4.864 m (15 ft 11.5 in) |
| Bern, Canton of | Ruthe | 10 Fuss | 2.932 m (9 ft 7.4 in) |
| Braunschweig (Brunswick) | Ruthe | 16 Fuß | 4.565 m (14 ft 11.7 in) |
| Bremen | Ruthe | 8 Ellen or 16 Fuß | 4.626 m (15 ft 2.1 in) |
| Calenberg | Ruthe | 16 Fuß | 4.677 m (15 ft 4.1 in) |
| Cassel, Hessen | Ruthe | 14 Fuß | 4.026 m (13 ft 2.5 in) |
| Hamburg | Geestruthe | 16 Fuß | 4.583 m (15 ft 0.4 in) |
| Hamburg | Marschruthe | 14 Fuß | 4.010 m (13 ft 1.9 in) |
| Hannover | Ruthe | 16 Fuß | 4.671 m (15 ft 3.9 in) |
| Lever, Oldenburg | Ruthe | 20 Fuß | 4.377 m (14 ft 4.3 in) |
| Mecklenburg | Ruthe | 16 Fuß | 4.655 m (15 ft 3.3 in) |
| Nuremberg, Bavaria | Ruthe | 16 Fuß | 4.861 m (15 ft 11.4 in) |
| Oldenburg | Ruthe | 20 Fuß | 5.927 m (19 ft 5.3 in) |
| Prussia, Rheinland | Ruthe | 12 Fuß | 3.766 m (12 ft 4.3 in) |
| Saxony | Ruthe | 16 Leipziger Fuß | 4.512 m (14 ft 9.6 in) |
| Württemberg | Reichsruthe | 10 Fuß | 2.865 m (9 ft 4.8 in) |
| Württemberg | old Ruthe | 16 Fuß | 4.583 m (15 ft 0.4 in) |
| Zürich, Canton of | Ruthe | 10 Fuss | 3.009 m (9 ft 10.5 in) |
| Except where noted, based on Niemann (1830).[5] The value of the local Fuß also varied widely. | |||
Klafter
editOriginally 6 feet, after introduction of the metric system 10 feet.[dubious – discuss] Regional variants from 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in) in Baden to 3 m (9 ft 10 in) in Switzerland.
Lachter
editThe Lachter was the most common unit of length used in mining in German-speaking areas. Its exact length varied from place to place but was roughly between 1.9 and 2.1 metres (6 ft 3 in and 6 ft 11 in).
Elle (ell)
editDistance between elbow and fingertip. In the North, often 2 feet, In Prussia 17⁄8 feet, in the South variable, often 2+1⁄2 feet. The smallest known German Elle is 402.8 mm (15.86 in), the longest 811 mm (31.9 in).
Zoll (inch)
editUsually 1⁄12 foot, but also 1⁄11 and 1⁄10.
Linie
editUsually 1⁄12 inch, but also 1⁄10.
Volume
editQuent
editBeing 1/5 of any measure
Malter
editIs a larger volumen unit of around one large sack of wheat a person could carry. However, the exact volumetric size and weight was locally very different in each feudal state. For more details, see [1].
Klafter
editFor firewood, 2.905 m3 (102.6 cu ft)
Nösel
editIn general, the Nösel (also spelled Össel) was a measure of liquid volume equal to half a Kanne ("jar," "jug," "bottle," "can"). Volume often varied depending on whether it was beer or wine. Its subdivisions were the Halbnösel ("Half-Nösel") and the Viertelnösel ("Quarter-Nösel).
An Ahm was a measure used for wine or beer. An Eimer ("Bucket") was a container that was a fifth of an Ahm. A Viertel ("Fourth") was a fourth of an Eimer. A Stübchen ("Cozy Room") also a Stauf was a measure of wine or beer that was equal to 2 Kannen. It was the approximate amount of wine or beer that could serve an entire room in a tavern. A Kanne was a measure of wine or beer large enough to fill a humpen (tankard) or krug (wine flagon or beer pitcher). A Quartier ("quarter-measure") was a fourth of a Stübchen. A Nösel was a cup or mug of wine or beer.
Actual volumes so measured, however, varied from one state or even one city to another. Within Saxony, for example, the "Dresden jar" held approximately 1 US quart or 0.95 litres or 0.83 imperial quarts, so a nösel in Dresden was about 1 US pint (0.47 L; 0.83 imp pt). The full volume of a "Leipzig jar" measured 1.2 liters (1.3 U.S. qt; 1.1 imp qt); the Leipzig nösel was therefore 0.6 liters (0.63 U.S. qt; 0.53 imp qt).
- 1⁄320 Ahm = 1⁄64 Eimer = 1⁄16 Viertel = 1⁄8 Stübchen / Stauf = 1⁄4 Kannen = 1⁄2 Quartiers = 1 Nösel = 2 Halbnöseln = 4 Viertelnöseln
The nösel was used in minor commerce, as well as in the household to measure meal, grain, and such. These units of measure were officially valid in Saxony until 1868, when the metric system was introduced. Nevertheless, the old measures have continued in private use for decades.
One modification was introduced in Thuringia. There, the nösel was, by extension, also a measure of area; namely, the area of land which could be sown with one nösel of seed — or about 19.36 square yards (16.19 m2; 0.00400 acres)
Weight
editThis section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2023) |
Pfund
editMark
edit1⁄2 Pfund. Equal to 233.856 g (Cologne).
Unze
edit1⁄16 of a Pfund. Roughly equal to 29.23 g.
Loth
edit1⁄32 of a Pfund, or 1⁄16 of a Mark. Equal to 14.606 g (Prussia).
Quentchen
edit1⁄96 of a Pfund. Roughly equal to 4.872 g.
Quint
edit1⁄128 of a Pfund. Roughly equal to 3.65 g.
Pfennig
edit1⁄512 of a Pfund. Roughly equal to 0.9135 g.
Gran
edit1⁄7690 of a Pfund. Roughly equal to 0.0609 g.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter (1879). The Metric system of weights and measures. American Metric Bureau. pp. 220–2. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
- ^ Harasimowicz, Jan [in Polish]; Suleja, Włodzimierz [in Polish] (2000). Encyklopedia Wrocławia (in Polish) (Wyd. 1 ed.). Wrocław: Wydawn. Dolnośląskie. ISBN 9788370237493. OCLC 46420892.
- ^ Davies, Norman; Moorhouse, Roger (2002). Mikrokosmos : portret miasta środkowoeuropejskiego : Vratislava, Breslau, Wrocław (in Polish). Translated by Pawelec, Andrzej (Wyd. 1 ed.). Kraków: Wydawn. Znak. ISBN 9788324001729. OCLC 50928641.
- ^ "Historie der Postsäulen" (in German). Forschungsgruppe Kursächsische Postmeilensäulen e.V. und 1. Sächsischer Postkutschenverein e.V. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- ^ a b c d Niemann, Friedrich (1830) Vollständiges Handbuch der Münzen, Masse, und Gewichte aller Länder der Erde fur Kaufleute, Banquiers ... : in alphabetischer Ordnung. Quedlinburg und Leipzig, G. Basse. p. 286
- ^ a b c Tate (1868), p. 49
Bibliography
edit- François Cardarelli: Encyclopedia of Scientific Units, Weights and Measures. Their SI Equivalences and Origins. Springer, Berlin 2003. ISBN 1-85233-682-X
- Helmut Kahnt, Bernd Knorr: Alte Masse, Münzen und Gewichte. . Bibliographisches Institut Mannheim/Wien/Zürich 1987. (Lizenzausgabe von VEB Bibliographisches Institut Leipzig 1986) (in German)
- Wolfgang Trapp: Kleines Handbuch der Maße, Zahlen Gewichte und der Zeitrechnung. Von . Reclam Stuttgart, 2. Auflage 1996. ISBN 3-15-008737-6 (in German)
- Günther Scholz, Klaus Vogelsang: Kleines Lexikon: Einheiten, Formelzeichen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig 1991 ISBN 3-343-00500-2 (in German)
- Johann Christian Nelkenbrechers Taschenbuch eines Banquiers und Kaufmanns: enthaltend eine Erklärung aller ein- und ausländischen Münzen, des Wechsel-Courses, Usos, Respect-Tage und anderer zur Handlung gehörigen Dinge; mit einer genauen Vergleichung des Ellen-Maaßes, Handels-, Gold- und Silber-Gewichts, auch Maaße von Getreide und flüssigen Sachen derer fürnehmsten europäischen Handels-Plätze. Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1769: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, Düsseldorf 2004. ISBN 3-936755-58-2 (in German)
- William Tate (1868). The Modern Cambist: Forming a Manual of Foreign Exchanges, in the Different Operations of Bills of Exchange and Bullion, According to the Practice of All Trading Nations, with Tables of Foreign Weights and Measures, and Their Equivalents in English and French.
External links
edit- Projekt zur Erschliessung historisch wertvoller Altkartenbestände Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine (in German)