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Operation Independence

(Redirected from Operacion Independencia)

Operativo Independencia ("Operation Independence") was a 1975 Argentine military operation in Tucumán Province to crush the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP), a Guevarist guerrilla group which tried to create a Vietnam-style war front in the northwestern province. It was the first large-scale military operation of the Dirty War.

Operation Independence
Part of the Dirty War
Date5 February 1975 – 28 September 1977 (1975-02-05 – 1977-09-28)
Location
Tucumán Province, Argentina
Result Argentine government victory
Belligerents
Commanders and leaders
Strength
5,000 500
30-100
Casualties and losses
  • 70 killed
  • 3 aircraft
  • 2 helicopters
 300 killed

Background

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Main article: Dirty War

After the return of Juan Perón to Argentina, marked by the 20 June 1973 Ezeiza massacre which led to the split between left and right-wing Peronists, and then his return to the presidency in 1973, the ERP shifted to a rural strategy designed to secure a large land area as a base for military operations against the Argentine state. The ERP leadership chose to send Compañía de Monte Ramón Rosa Jiménez to the province of Tucumán at the edge of the long-impoverished Andean highlands in the northwest corner of Argentina.

By December 1974, the guerrillas numbered about 100 fighters, with a 400-person support network, although the size of the guerrilla platoons increased from February onwards as the ERP approached its maximum strength of between 300 and 500 men and women. Led by Mario Roberto Santucho, they soon established control over a third of the province and organized a base of some 2,500 sympathizers.[7] The Montoneros' leadership was keen to learn from their experience, and sent "observers" to spend a few months with the ERP platoons operating in Tucumán.[8]

Annihilation Actions decree

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Military zones of Argentina

The military operation to crush the insurgency was authorized by the Provisional President of the Senate, Ítalo Argentino Lúder, who was granted executive power during the absence (due to illness) of President Isabel Perón, in virtue of the "Ley de Acefalía" (law of succession). Ítalo Lúder issued the presidential decree 261/1975 which stated that the "general command of the Army will proceed to all of the necessary military operations to the effect of neutralizing or annihilating the actions of the subversive elements acting in Tucumán Province."[9]

The Argentine military used the territory of the smallest Argentine province to implement, within the framework of the National Security Doctrine, the methods of the "counter-revolutionary warfare". These included the use of terrorism, kidnappings, forced disappearances and concentration camps where hundreds of guerrillas and their supporters in Tucumán were tortured and murdered. The logistical and operational superiority of the military, headed first by General Acdel Vilas, and from December 1975 by Antonio Domingo Bussi, succeeded in crushing the insurgency after a year and by destroying links the ERP, led by Roberto Santucho, had earlier established with the local population.

Brigadier-General Acdel Vilas deployed over 4,000 soldiers, including two companies of elite army commandos, backed by jets, dogs, helicopters, U.S. satellites and a Navy Beechcraft Queen Air B-80 equipped with infrared surveillance assets.[1][2] The ERP did not enjoy much support from the local population and it needed to wage a terror campaign to be able to move at will among the towns of Santa Lucía, Los Sosa, Monteros and La Fronterita[10] around Famaillá and the Monteros mountains, until the Fifth Brigade from Third Army Corps came on the scene, consisting of the 19th, 20th and 29th Regiments.[11] and various support units.

State of emergency

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During his brief interlude as the nation's chief executive, interim President Ítalo Lúder extended the operation to the whole of the country through Decrees noº 2270, 2271 and 2272, issued on 6 July 1975. The July decrees created a Defense Council headed by the president, and including his ministers and the chiefs of the armed forces.[12][13][14] It was given the command of the national and provincial police and correctional facilities and its mission was to "annihilate the actions of subversive elements throughout the country." Military control and the state of emergency was thus generalized to all of the country. The "counter-insurgency" tactics used by the French during the 1957 Battle of Algiers —such as relinquishing of civilian control to the military, state of emergency, block warden system ("quadrillage"), etc.— were perfectly imitated by the Argentine military.

These "annihilation Action decrees" are the source of the charges against Isabel Perón, which called for her arrest in Madrid more than thirty years later, in January 2007, but she was never extradited to Argentina due to her advanced age. The country was then divided into five military zones through a 28 October 1975 directive of struggle against subversion. As had been done during the 1957 Battle of Algiers, each zone was divided in subzones and areas, with its corresponding military responsibles. General Antonio Domingo Bussi replaced Acdel Vilas in December 1975 as responsible of the military operations. A reported 656 people disappeared in Tucumán between 1974 and 1979, 75% of which were laborers and labor union officials.[15]

Operation

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1975

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On 5 January 1975, an Army DHC-6 transport plane was downed near the Monteros mountains while on a reconnaissance mission, apparently shot down by the Guerrillas.[16] All thirteen on board that were killed, were mostly officers from Third Army Corps, including the Fifth Brigade commander, Brigadier-General Ricardo Agustín Muñoz and his superior Major-General Enrique Eugenio Salgado were killed. The military believe a heavy machine gun had downed the aircraft.[17][18]

The deployment on the ground was completed by 9 February. The guerrillas who had laid low when the 5th Brigade first arrived, soon began to strike at the mountain units. On 14 February a 60-strong combat team under the command of Captain Juan Carlos Jones-Tamayo from the mountain brigade clashed with 20 guerrillas at Río Pueblo Viejo, and in the ensuing gun-battle 29-year old First Lieutenant Héctor Cáceres (a commando) was killed attempting to get to the aid of Lieutenant Rodolfo Richter (also a commando) that had been designated as point-man and had been badly wounded.[19] Second Lieutenant Daniel Arias and Corporal Juan Orellana of the combat team were also wounded and two guerrillass were killed in this action, Héctor Enrique Toledo and Víctor Pablo Lasser.[20] On 24 February, while supporting troops on the ground, a Piper PA-18 crashed near the town of Ingenio Santa Lucía[21] , killing its two crewmen.[22] On 28 February, an army corporal, Desidero Dardo Pérez, was killed while inspecting an abandoned car rigged with an explosive charge in the city of Famaillá.[23]

Three months of constant patrolling and 'cordon and search' operations with helicopter-borne troops, soon reduced the ERP's effectiveness in the Famaillá area, and so in June, elements of the 5th Brigade moved to the frontiers of Tucumán to guard against ERP and Montoneros guerrillas crossing into the province from Catamarca, and Santiago del Estero.

On 11 May, an Army officer, Second Lieutenant Raúl Ernesto García was killed while is unit manned a checkpoint during a fierce exchange of fire with a car-load of guerrillas travelling along Route 301 in Tucumán.[24] The guerrilla that fired the fatal shot was identified as Wilfredo Contra Siles, a Bolivian national.[25] That month, ERP representative Amílcar Santucho, brother of Roberto, was captured along with Jorge Fuentes Alarcón, a member of the Chilean Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR), trying to cross into Paraguay to promote the Revolutionary Coordinating Junta (JCR) unity effort with the MIR, the Uruguayan Tupamaros and the Bolivian National Liberation Army. During his interrogation, he provided information that helped the Argentine security agencies destroy the ERP.

On 28 May, a four-hour gun-battle took place between 117 guerrillas and the 32-strong 1st Platoon from the 5th Mountain Engineer Company that had been assigned to carrying out repairs as part of a hearts-and-mind campaign in the schools of Manchalá, Yacuchina, Yonopongo and Balderrama in the Tucumán countryside, resulting in several casualties on both sides. The guerrilla force, that were wearing Argentine Army uniforms to achieve total surprise, had been instructed to advance in a column of heavy vehicles to the very gates of the headquarters of the 5th Mountain Brigade and force their way in with the aim of seizing and killing the brigade commander and his key officers.[26] In the face of heavy army reinforcements, the guerrillas ceased contact and escaped to their operating base located in El Tiro via three routes, leaving two of their own dead, Domingo Villalobos Campos, a Chilean nation and Juan Carlos Irurtia.[27] By July, the commandos were carrying out search-and-destroy missions in the mountains. Army special forces discovered Santucho's hideout in August, then raided the ERP urban headquarters in September.

Nevertheless, the military was not to have everything its way. On 16 August Corporal Miguel Dardo Juárez is shot dead in a gun battle that took place in Las Mesadas with six guerrillas reportedly killed in that action.[28] On 28 August, a bomb was planted at the Tucumán air base airstrip by Montoneros, in a support action for their comrades in the ERP.[29] The blast destroyed an Air Force C-130 transport carrying 114 anti-guerrilla Gendarmerie commandos heading for home leave, killing six and wounding 29.[30] The following day saw the derailment of a train carrying troops back from the guerrilla front about 64 kilometers south of the city of Tucumán, this time without any casualties.[31] Most of the Compañía de Monte's general staff were killed in a special forces raid in October, but the guerrilla units continued to fight.

On 5 September an army platoon operating outside Potrero Negro falls into an ERP ambush and the officer in charge, Second Lieutenant Rodolfo Berdina is mortally wounded and Private Ismael Maldonado is killed at the very start of the firefight.[32]

On 10 October, a UH-1H helicopter piloted by Second Lieutenant Oscar Delfino was hit by small arms fire during an offensive reconnaissance mission near Acheral, killing its door gunner, Corporal José Anselmo Ramírez and wounding Captain Armando Valiente (a commando).[33] After an emergency landing, other helicopters carried out rocket attacks on the reedbed. A total of 13 guerrillas were killed in the ensuing firefight.[34] On 17 October, near Los Sosas, an army platoon was ambushed losing four men. On 24 October, during a clash that took place with ERP guerrillas on the banks of Fronterista River, Second Lieutenant Diego Barceló and Privates Orlando Moya and Carlos Vizcarra from the 5th Brigade were killed.[35] On 8 November 1975 there was an engagement near Fronterita stream in which the 5th Brigade suffered another two killed, Corporal Wilfredo Napoleón Méndez and Private Benito Oscar Pérez.[36]

On 18 December, Acdel Vilas was relieved from his post and Antonio Domingo Bussi assumed command of the operations. Shortly afterwards, Bussi told Vilas over the phone: "Vilas, you have left me nothing to do."[37]

On 29 December, Bussi launched Operation La Madrid I, the first of a series of four search and destroy operations.

1976

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The mountain and parachute units remained essential as military support for the local police and gendarmerie security forces, as well as the apprehension of several hundred ERP and Montoneros guerrillas who were still operating in the jungles and mountains, and sympathizers hidden among the civilian population in what was described by the American newspaper Baltimore Sun as a "growing 'Viet war'"[38] During the first week of January, the army commandos discovered seven guerrilla hideouts.

On 9 February 1976, during a celebratory dinner that was to take place in the 1st 'Patricios' Regiment Barracks in Buenos Aires in honour of Brigadier-General Acdel Vilas, an attempt was made to poison Vilas and those attending when Private First Class Miguel Romero an infiltrated agent of the Montoneros tampered with the soup that would be first served. But Brigadier-General Vilas became suspicious with the texture of the soup and the mass poisoning was averted. Romero was able to escape in the immediate confusion but he would be shot dead along with another guerrilla, Isidro Fernández, in a confrontation with security forces in the large industrial sector of Avellaneda in the Argentine capital.[39]

During February, in an effort to rekindle the rural front in Tucumán, Montoneros sent in reinforcements in the form of a company of their elite "Jungle Troops", which was initially commanded by Juan Carlos Alsogaray (El Hippie), son of Lieutenant-General Julio Alsogaray, who had served as head of the Argentine Army from 1966 to 1968. The ERP also sent reinforcements to Tucumán in the form of their elite Decididos de Córdoba Company from Córdoba.[40] Bussi achieved a major success on 13 February when the 14th Airborne Infantry Regiment killed "El Hippie" and ambushed his elite Montoneros company. Two paratroopers (Corporal Héctor Roberto Lazarte and Private Pedro Burguener) and some 10 guerrillas were killed in this action. On 30 March, a policeman (Sergeant Pedro Oscar Fagioli) was gunned down and killed by left-wing miltants while patrolling in downtown Tucumán.[41]

On 10 April, a Private Mario Gutiérrez from the 20th Mountain Infantry Regiment was killed in a nocturnal action involving guerrilla operating in the Los Sosa area of the Monteros mountains. That same day, a policeman (Juan Carlos Gerardo Silvetti) was gunned down by three male and one female militants while he was standing guard at a hospital.[42]

In mid-April, in a major operation conducted against the ERP underground network in the province of Córdoba, the 4th Airborne Infantry Brigade took into custody and forcibly disappeared some 300 activists.[43] On 26 April, inspector general Juan Sirnio of the Tucumán Police was shot dead in his car by Montoneros guerrillas.[44] The same day, the Montoneros guerrillas also killed a retired army colonel, Colonel, Abel Héctor Elías Cavagnaro outside his home in Tucumán.[45][46]

On 5 May, during night mission, an army UH-1H crashed on the banks of Río Caspichango, killing five of its seven crew members, Captain José Antonio Ramallo, Lieutenant César Gonzalo Ledesma, Sergeant Walter Hugo Gómez and Corporals Carlos Alberto Parra and Ricardo Martín Zárate.[47]

On 10 May, Private Carlos Alberto Fricker was shot dead by nervous sentries while stationed in Famaillá or died by suicide, although journalist Marcos Taire suggested that the Argentine Army was involved in a dastardly action.[48] Then Second Lieutenant César Milani would be signalled out as the officer responsible for the murder and disappearance of Private Fricker and a number of other conscript soldiers serving in the 5th Brigade at the time, and as future commander of the Argentine Army would face the full wrath of the Argentine press and forced to resign his post and spend time in jail until it was proven in a court of law that he never actually served in Tucumán province and was consequently absolved of charges of having committed crimes against humanity and released from jail.[49]

On 17 May, Second Lieutenant Juan Toledo Pimentel, Sergeant Alberto Eduardo Lai and Private Carlos Alberto Cajal died in a remote-controlled bomb blast near the town of Caspinchango.[50][51][52][53] In 2013, journalist Marcos Taire who appeared in the El Azúcar y la Sangre 2007 documentary praising the leftist militants in Tucumán, wrote that the Argentine military campaign in the province was a hoax and that the ambulance was blown up on purpose in an Argentine Army false-flag incident.[54] The officer (César Milani) falsely accused of orchestrating the murders of Second Lieutenant Pimentel, Sergeant Lai and Private Cajal and others would spend considerable time in jail before being proven innocent in a court of law and set free.[55]

On 28 July in the city of San Miguel de Tucumán, in a raid carried out on the premises located at 2588 Crisóstomo Alvarez Street, police chief of investigations Timoteo Marcial and two of his policemen are killed[56] In a clash with guerrillas with the Montoneros losing two killed (28-year-old Jorgelina Almerares[57] And her husband, 32-year-old Víctor Hugo Bernuchi[58]) in this action. Another guerrilla, 23-year-old Ramón Héctor Gil is able to escape in the immediate confusion of the gun-battle. He would be hunted down and killed on 9 August 1976 at Banda del Rio Salí, Cruz Alta, Tucumán province in a joint operation involving the army and police.[59]

On 19 October, the Compañía de Monte's commander, Lionel MacDonald, was gunned down along two other fighters. Throughout 1976, a total of 24 patrol battles took place in Tucumán province, resulting in the deaths of at least 74 guerrillas and 18 soldiers and policemen in Tucumán Province.[60] 1976 would prove to be a costly year for the Argentine Armed Forces and police with 156 officers, NCOs, conscripts and police agents killed combating left wing guerrillas and militants throughout Argentina.[61]

Veterans' demands

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On 14 December 2007, some 200 soldiers who fought against the guerrillas in Tucumán province demanded an audience with the governor of Tucumán Province, José Jorge Alperovich, claiming they too were victims of the "Dirty War", and demanded a government sponsored military pension as veterans of the counter-insurgency campaign in northern Argentina.[62] Indeed, data from the 2,300-strong Asociación Ex-Combatientes del Operativo Independencia indicate that as of 1976, 4 times more Tucumán veterans have died from suicide after operations in the province. Critics of the ex-servicemen association claim that no combat operations took place in the province and that the government forces deployed in Tucumán killed more than 2,000 innocent civilians.[63] According to Professor Paul H. Lewis, a large percentage of the disappeared in Tucumán were in fact students, professors and recent graduates of the local university, all of whom were caught providing supplies and information to the guerrillas.[64] On 24 March 2008, some 2,000 Tucumán veterans of the 11,000-strong Movimiento Ex Soldados del Operativo Independencia y del Conflicto Limítrofe con Chile, who fought against ERP guerrillas and were later redeployed along the Andes in the military standoff with Chile, took to the streets of Tucumán city to demand recognition as combat veterans.[65] Some 180,000 Argentine conscripts saw service during the military dictatorship (1976–1983),[66] 130 died as a result of the Dirty War.[67]

Footnotes

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  1. ^ a b Comandos en acción: el Ejército en Malvinas, Isidoro Ruiz Moreno, p. 24, Emecé Editores, 1986
  2. ^ a b Burzaco, Ricardo (1994). Infierno en el Monte Tucumano. p. 64. OCLC 31720152.
  3. ^ Campbell, Duncan (6 December 2003). "Kissinger approved Argentinian 'dirty war' Declassified US files expose 1970s backing for junta". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  4. ^ Enrique Díaz-Araujo. La guerrilla en sus libros. p. 98.
  5. ^ "Página/12 :: El país :: Gorriarán Merlo cuenta su versión". Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  6. ^ "Página/12". Retrieved 23 February 2015.
  7. ^ Lewis, Paul H. (2002). Guerrillas and Generals: The Dirty War in Argentina. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 105. ISBN 9780275973605.
  8. ^ Martha Crenshaw (1995). Terrorism in Context. Penn State Press. p. 230. ISBN 9780271044422.
  9. ^ Decree No. 261/75 Archived 2006-11-15 at the Wayback Machine. NuncaMas.org, Decretos de aniquilamiento. Spanish: El Comando General del Ejército procederá a ejecutar todas las operaciones militares que sean necesarias a efectos de neutralizar o aniquilar el accionar de los elementos subversivos que actúan en la provincia de Tucumán.
  10. ^ Lewis, Paul H. (2002). Guerrillas and Generals: The Dirty War in Argentina. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 107. ISBN 9780275973605.
  11. ^ English, Adrian J. (1984). Armed Forces of Latin America: Their Histories, Development, Present Strength, and Military Potential. Janes Information Group. p. 33.
  12. ^ Decree No. 2770/75 Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. NuncaMas.org, Decretos de aniquilamiento.
  13. ^ Decree No. 2771/75 Archived 2007-10-09 at the Wayback Machine. NuncaMas.org, Decretos de aniquilamiento.
  14. ^ Decree No. 2772/75 Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. NuncaMas.org, Decretos de aniquilamiento.
  15. ^ "Listado de Desaparecidos" (in Spanish). Proyecto Desaparecidos.
  16. ^ John Keegan, World Armies|page=22, Macmillan, 1983
  17. ^ "Allí hubo gran acción en combates como el de Acheral, Pueblo Viejo y Famailla donde se volaron mas de 3 400 horas. Como consecuencia de los mismos, se produjo el derribo de un Twin Otter, un Piper L-21B y dos Bell UH-1H." Tecnología Militar, Tomo 24. Grupo Editorial Mönch. 2002. p. 26
  18. ^ "El 5 de enero de 1975, una aeronave militar ( Twin Otter ) que transportaba altos mandos del III Cuerpo del Ejército, se desplomó muriendo los trece oficiales, entre ellos el Comandante del respectivo Cuerpo con base en Tucumán, General de División Eugenio Salgado y el comandante de la V Brigada de Infantería el General de Brigada Ricardo Agustín Muñoz. El hecho conmocionó al país, como puede vislumbrarse en cualquier periódico del 6 de enero de ese año, especialmente cuando la investigación arrojó que el avión fue derribado por el fuego de ametralladoras antiaéreas de origen ruso, que hicieron impacto sobre el timón del avión, haciendo que se precipitara contra el terreno, disparado por guerrilleros del Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo (ERP)." Ni Yanquis Ni Marxistas ¡Peronistas!, Diego Mazzieri, p. 257, Lulu Press, 2012
  19. ^ Reconocimiento a los héroes de Río Pueblo Viejo
  20. ^ Las acciones de los guerrilleros en el monte tucumano y el combate donde murieron los soldados “borrados”
  21. ^ Las acciones de los guerrilleros en el monte tucumano y el combate donde murieron los soldados “borrados”
  22. ^ First Lieutenant Carlos María Casagrande and Second Lieutenant Gustavo Pablo López
  23. ^ Cronología Militar Argentina, 1806-1980, p.200, Editorial CLIO, 1983
  24. ^ "En uno de los vehículos fueron detectados varios guerrilleos, produciéndose un intenso tiroteo, hecho en el que pierde la vida el subteniente García." In memoriam, Volumen 1, p.192, Círculo Militar, 1998
  25. ^ Las acciones de los guerrilleros en el monte tucumano y el combate donde murieron los soldados “borrados”
  26. ^ El violento combate de Manchalá: cuando 11 soldados y dos suboficiales se enfrentaron a un centenar de guerrilleros del ERP
  27. ^ El violento combate de Manchalá: cuando 11 soldados y dos suboficiales se enfrentaron a un centenar de guerrilleros del ERP
  28. ^ Historia del Peronismo: La Violencia, 1956-1983, Hugo Gambini, p. 367, Vergara, 2008
  29. ^ Bomb in Argentina Kills 4. A board a Military Plane
  30. ^ "35 años del atentado al Hércules en Tucumán". Archived from the original on 24 January 2012.
  31. ^ "Airport Terrorists Sought In Argentina". Toledo Blade. 29 August 1975.
  32. ^ Quiénes eran el subteniente Rodolfo Berdina y el soldado Ismael Maldonado, los caídos del tuit que borró el Ejército
  33. ^ Defensa y Seguridad Mercosur, Volumes 17-22, 2004
  34. ^ "Argentine Army Claims 13 Leftist Guerrillas Killed". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. 12 October 1975.
  35. ^ La decisión de enviar al Ejército a Tucumán: cómo se gestó la derrota militar del ERP
  36. ^ "El 24 de octubre se produjo un combate nocturno en arroyo Fronterita donde murió el cabo Wilfredo Napoleón Méndez y el soldado Benito Oscar Pérez." La Guerrilla en Tucumán: Una Historia No Escrita, Eusebio González Breard, p. 227, Círculo Militar, 1999
  37. ^ Tucumán, Enero a Diciembre de 1975
  38. ^ James Nelson Goodsell (18 January 1976). "'Viet war' growing in Argentina". The Baltimore Sun.
  39. ^ Romero, Miguel Ángel
  40. ^ Lewis, Paul H. (2002). Guerrillas and Generals: The Dirty War in Argentina. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 125. ISBN 9780275973605.]
  41. ^ El Terrorismo en la Historia Universal y en La Argentina, Ambrosio Romero Carranza, p. 225, Ediciones Depalma, 1980
  42. ^ "El 10 de abril de 1976, Juan Carlos Gerardo Silvetti, agente de la policía de Tucumán, cumplía guardia en la puerta del Hospital Niño Jesús, de la ciudad capital. Estaba orientando a personas que le pedían alguna indicación, cuando se le acercaron una mujer y tres hombres y lo ametrallaron, sin mediar palabra." Los Otros Muertos: Las Víctimas Civiles del Terrorismo Guerrillero de los 70, Carlos A. Manfroni, Victoria E. Villarruel , p. 122, Grupo Editorial Argentina, 2014
  43. ^ Robben, Antonius C. G. M. (2005). Political Violence and Trauma in Argentina. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 201.
  44. ^ Los Otros Muertos, Carlos Manfroni, Victoria Villarruel, p. ?, Sudamericana, 2014
  45. ^ "Un comando montonero abate al coronel (RE) Abel Héctor Elías Cavagnaro en la puerta de su casa." Documentos, 1976-1977, Volumen 1, Roberto Baschetti, p. 21, De la Campana, 2001
  46. ^ Las Cifras de la Guerra Sucia, Graciela Fernández Meijide, Page 52, Asamblea Permanente por los Derechos Humanos, (1988)
  47. ^ "En la noche señalada en Santa Mónica, Provincia de Tucumán, en operación nocturna contra subversivos del ERP, fallecen el Cap José Antonio Ramallo y el Cabo 1o Carlos Alberto Parra del R. de Inf. 12; el Teniente César Gonzalo Ledesma, del Bat. de Aviación de Ejército 601 y el Sarg Walter Hugo Gómez del R. Inf. 4. Días después el 7 de mayo y como consecuencia de las graves heridas sufridas en el siniestro fallece el Cabo 1o Ricardo Martín." Manual de informaciones, Volumen 31, Estado Mayor General del Ejército, Jefatura II, 1989
  48. ^ La guerra que no tuvo héroes
  49. ^ Ex-Army chief César Milani acquitted of crimes against humanity
  50. ^ In memoriam, Volumen 1, 9. 211, Círculo Militar, República Argentina, 1998
  51. ^ Guerrillas and Generals: The "Dirty War" in Argentina, Paul H. Lewis, Page 126, Greenwood Publishing Group (2002) "Throughout April and May, the Mountain Company tried to regain the initiative by shooting down a helicopter, blowing up an army ambulance, executing an army scout, and raking with gunfire a squad of soldiers in a truck, but the army's pressure was inexorable."
  52. ^ ISLA, Volume 12, Page 126, ISLA Clipping Service (1976) "Elsewhere, the dynamiting of an army ambulance and a shootout left Seven guerrillas and three soldiers dead."
  53. ^ Peron faces interrogation (May 19,1976)
  54. ^ La guerra que no tuvo héroes
  55. ^ Ex-Army chief César Milani acquitted of crimes against humanity
  56. ^ Ocho guerrilleros y tres policías, muertos en Argentina
  57. ^ Almerares, Jorgelina María
  58. ^ Bernuchi, Victor Hugo
  59. ^ Gil, Ramón Héctor
  60. ^ "Operativo Independencia" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 28 March 2010.
  61. ^ State Terrorism in Latin America: Chile, Argentina, and International Human Rights, Thomas C. Wright, p. 102, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007
  62. ^ "Ex soldados exigen una pensión" (in Spanish). El Siglo. 15 December 2007. Archived from the original on 8 August 2007.
  63. ^ "Volvieron a aparecer públicamente los ex soldados que reivindican el Operativo Independencia" (in Spanish). 11 February 2009. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012.
  64. ^ Lewis, Paul H. (2002). Guerrillas and Generals: The Dirty War in Argentina. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 126. ISBN 9780275973605.
  65. ^ [1][permanent dead link‍] El Siglo, 24 March 2008
  66. ^ "Estafan a ex soldados con rumores de pensiones: cobran $ 500 por trámite" (in Spanish). Clarín.com. 3 July 2007.
  67. ^ Duhalde, Eduardo Luis (1999). El estado terrorista argentino: Quince años después, una mirada crítica. Eudeba. p. 339.
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