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Ottoman dynasty

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This article is about the historical royal family. For the territorial state over which it ruled, see Ottoman Empire. For current members of the House of Osman, see Osmanoğlu family.

The Ottoman dynasty (Turkish: Osmanlı Hanedanı) consisted of the members of the imperial House of Osman (Ottoman Turkish: خاندان آل عثمان, romanized: Ḫānedān-ı Āl-i ʿOsmān), also known as the Ottomans (Turkish: Osmanlılar). According to Ottoman tradition, the family originated from the Kayı tribe[nb 1] branch of the Oghuz Turks,[2] under Osman I in northwestern Anatolia in the district of Bilecik, Söğüt. The Ottoman dynasty, named after Osman I, ruled the Ottoman Empire from c. 1299 to 1922.

House of Osman
Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire (1882–1922)
Country Ottoman Empire
FounderOsman I
Final ruler
Titles
TraditionsSunni Islam
Deposition
Cadet branchesOsmanoğlu family

During much of the Empire's history, the sultan was the absolute regent, head of state, and head of government, though much of the power often shifted to other officials such as the Grand Vizier. During the First (1876–78) and Second Constitutional Eras (1908–20) of the late Empire, a shift to a constitutional monarchy was enacted, with the Grand Vizier taking on a prime ministerial role as head of government and heading an elected General Assembly.

The imperial family was deposed from power and the sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922 during the Turkish War of Independence. The Republic of Turkey was declared the following year. The living members of the dynasty were initially sent into exile as personae non-gratae, though some have been allowed to return and live as private citizens in Turkey. In its current form, the family is known as the Osmanoğlu family.

History

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The Ottoman dynasty operated under several basic premises: that the Sultan governed the empire's entire territory, that every male member of the dynastic family was hypothetically eligible to become Sultan, and that only one person at a time could be the Sultan.[3] Such rules were fairly standard for monarchic empires of the time. The certain processes through which men rose to the Sultanate, however, were very specific to the Ottoman Empire. To go into greater detail about these processes, the history of succession between Sultans can be divided into two eras: the period between the reign of Orhan (1323–1362), the first person to inherit the Ottoman sultanate, and the reign of Ahmed I (1603–1617); and the period following Ahmed I's reign.

 
Sultans of the Ottoman dynasty.
 
Rukiye Sabiha Sultan's wedding day in 1920, left to right: Fatma Ulviye Sultan, Ayşe Hatice Hayriye Dürrüşehvar Sultan, Emine Nazikeda Kadınefendi, Rukiye Sabiha Sultan, Mehmed Ertuğrul Efendi, Şehsuvar Hanımefendi.

The succession process during the first period was dominated by violence and intra-familial conflict, in which the various sons of the deceased Sultan fought until only one remained alive and, thus, inherited the throne. This tradition was known as fratricide in the Ottoman Empire but may have evolved from tanistry, a similar succession procedure that existed in many Turco-Mongolian dynasties predating the Ottomans.[4] Sons of the Sultan were often given provincial territories to govern until the Sultan's death, at which point they would each vie for the throne.[5] Each son had to, according to historian H. Erdem Cipa, "demonstrate that his fortune was superior to the fortunes of his rivals", a demonstration that often took the form of military accomplishment and ruthlessness.[6] This violence was not considered particularly unexpected or unusual. As Cipa has noted, the Ottoman words for "successor" and "conflict" share the same Arabic root,[7] and indeed, all but one of the successions in this roughly 200-year period involved a resolution by combat.[8] Over time, the combat became increasingly prevalent and recognized, especially after a Janissary uprising negated Murad II's attempt to abdicate the throne peacefully to his son, Mehmed II, in 1444. During the eventual reign of Mehmed II (1451–1481), fratricide was legalized as an official practice; during the reign of Bayezid II (1481–1512), fratricide between Bayezid II's sons occurred before Bayezid II himself died;[9] and after the reign of Murad III (1574–1595), his successor Mehmed III executed 19 brothers to claim the throne.[10]

During the second period, the tradition of fratricide was replaced by a simpler and less violent procedure. Starting with the succession from Ahmed I to Mustafa I in 1617, the Ottoman throne was inherited by the eldest male blood relative – not necessarily the son – of the Sultan, regardless of how many eligible family members were alive.[11] The change in succession procedure was likely instigated by numerous factors, including fratricide's decline in popularity among Ottoman elites[12] and Ahmed I's decision not to kill Mustafa when inheriting the throne from Mehmed III in 1603. With the door open for a policy change, a political debate arose between those who supported unrestricted Sultanic privilege and those who supported a stronger, centralized law system that would supersede even the Sultan's power to an extent. Historian Baki Tezcan has argued that the latter faction – with the help of the influential şeyhülislam Hocazade Esad Efendi – was able to prevail in this instance.[11] The bloodless succession from Ahmed I to Mustafa I in 1617 "provided a reference for the eventual stabilization of the rule of Ottoman succession, the very regulation of which by an outside force was in effect a constitutional check on the dynastic prerogative," Tezcan has written.[13] The precedent set in 1617 stuck, as the eldest living family member successfully inherited the throne in each of the following 21 successions, with relatively few instances of a son inheriting the throne.[14]

Succession practices

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See also: War of succession § Ottoman Empire, and List of wars of succession

From the fourteenth through the late sixteenth centuries, the Ottomans practiced open succession – something historian Donald Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son."[15] During their father's lifetime, all adult sons of the reigning Osmanoğlu family's sultan were given provincial governorships in order to gain experience in administration (a practice commonly found in Central Asian tradition), accompanied and mentored by their retinues and tutors.[16] Upon the death of their father, the reigning sultan, these sons would fight amongst themselves for the succession until one emerged triumphant.[16] The first son to reach the capital and seize control of the court would usually become the new ruler.[16] The proximity of a Şehzade (=Prince) to Constantinople improved his chances of success, simply because he could hear of his father's death, seize control of the Ottoman court in the capital, and declare himself Sultan first.[citation needed] A Sultan could thus hint at his preferred successor by giving a favourite son a closer governorship.[citation needed] Bayezid II, for instance, had to fight his brother Cem Sultan in the 1480s for the right to rule.[citation needed]

Occasionally, the half-brothers would begin the struggle even before the death of their father. Under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), strife between his sons Şehzade Mustafa and Şehzade Selim (later Selim II) caused such internal turmoil that Suleiman ordered the deaths of both Şehzade Mustafa and another son, Şehzade Bayezid, leaving Şehzade Selim the sole heir.[citation needed]

During the reigns of Suleiman I and Selim II, the Haseki Sultan (Ottoman Turkish: خاصکى سلطان) or chief consort rose to greater prominence. Gaining power within the Imperial Harem, the favourite was able to manoeuvre to ensure the succession for one of her sons. This led to a short period of effective primogeniture. However, unlike in the earlier period, when the sultan had already defeated his brothers and potential rivals for the throne in battle, these sultans had the problem of many half-brothers who could act as the focus for rival factions. Thus, to prevent attempts at seizing the throne, reigning sultans practiced fratricide upon accession, starting with Murad I in 1362.[17] Both Murad III and his son Mehmed III had their half-brothers murdered. The killing of all the new sultan's brothers and half-brothers (who were usually quite numerous) was traditionally done by manual strangling with a silk cord. As the centuries passed, the ritual killing was gradually replaced by lifetime solitary confinement in the "Golden Cage" or kafes, a room in the harem from where the sultan's brothers could never escape, unless perchance they became heir presumptive. Some had already become mentally unstable by the time they were asked to reign.[citation needed]

Mehmed III was the last sultan to have previously held a provincial governorship. Sons now remained within the harem until the death of their father. This not only denied them the ability to form powerful factions capable of usurping their father but also denied them the opportunity to have children while their father remained alive. Thus, when Mehmet's son came to the throne as Ahmed I, he had no children of his own. Moreover, as a minor, there was no evidence he could have children. This had the potential to create a crisis of succession and led to a gradual end to fratricide. Ahmed had some of his brothers killed, but not Mustafa (later Mustafa I). Similarly, Osman II allowed his half-brothers Murad IV and Ibrahim to live. This led to a shift in the 17th century from a system of primogeniture to one based on agnatic seniority, in which the eldest male within the dynasty succeeded, also to guarantee adult sultans and prevent both fratricides as well as the sultanate of women. Thus, Mustafa succeeded his brother Ahmed; Suleiman II and Ahmed II succeeded their brother Mehmed IV before being succeeded in turn by Mehmed's son Mustafa II. Agnatic seniority explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his son, but usually by an uncle or brother. It also meant that potential rulers had to wait a long time in the kafes before ascending the throne, hence the old age of certain sultans upon their enthronement.[18] Although attempts were made in the 19th century to replace agnatic seniority with primogeniture, they were unsuccessful, and seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate in 1922.[19]

Chronology of sultans

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Further information: List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire
 
Ottoman Imperial Standard, Late 19th and early 20th Century.

List of heirs since 1922

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The Ottoman dynasty was expelled from Turkey in 1924 and most members took on the surname Osmanoğlu, meaning "son of Osman."[45] The female members of the dynasty were allowed to return after 1951,[45] and the male members after 1973.[46] Below is a list of people who would have been heirs to the Ottoman throne following the abolition of the sultanate on 1 November 1922.[46] These people have not necessarily made any claim to the throne; for example, Ertuğrul Osman said "Democracy works well in Turkey."[47]

 
Ottoman family members including Şehzade Ömer Faruk and Sabiha Sultan.
Name Title Relationship to predecessor and Sultan Head of the House of Osman Duration as Head of the House of Osman
Mehmed VI Last Ottoman Sultan and Caliph (1918–1922)
36th Head of the House of Osman (1922–1926)[46] 		Son of Sultan Abdulmejid I, grandson of Sultan Mahmud II, younger brother of Murad V, Abdul Hamid II and Mehmed V. 1 November 1922 – 16 May 1926 3 years, 196 days
Abdulmejid II Last Ottoman Caliph (1922–1924)
37th Head of the House of Osman following Mehmed VI's death (1926–1944) 		First cousin of Mehmed VI, son of Sultan Abdülaziz.[46] 16 May 1926 – 23 August 1944 18 years, 99 days
Ahmed Nihad 38th Head of the House of Osman (1944–1954) First cousin twice removed of Abdulmejid II, grandson of Sultan Murad V.[46] 23 August 1944 – 4 June 1954 9 years, 285 days
Osman Fuad 39th Head of the House of Osman (1954–1973) Younger half-brother of Ahmed Nihad, grandson of Sultan Murad V.[46] 4 June 1954 – 19 May 1973 18 years, 349 days
Mehmed Abdulaziz 40th Head of the House of Osman (1973–1977) Second cousin twice removed of Osman Fuad, grandson of Sultan Abdülaziz.[46] 19 May 1973 – 19 January 1977 3 years, 245 days
Ali Vâsib 41st Head of the House of Osman (1977–1983) Second cousin twice removed of Mehmed Abdulaziz, great-grandson of Sultan Murad V.[46] 19 January 1977 – 9 December 1983 6 years, 324 days
Mehmed Orhan 42nd Head of the House of Osman (1983–1994) Second cousin once removed of Ali Vâsib, grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.[48] 9 December 1983 – 12 March 1994 10 years, 93 days
Ertuğrul Osman 43rd Head of the House of Osman (1994–2009) First cousin of Mehmed Orhan, grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.[47] 12 March 1994 – 23 September 2009 15 years, 195 days
Bayezid Osman 44th Head of the House of Osman (2009–2017) Second cousin of Ertuğrul Osman, great-grandson of Sultan Mehmed V.[49] 23 September 2009 – 6 January 2017 7 years, 105 days
Dündar Ali Osman 45th Head of the House of Osman (2017–2021) Second cousin once removed of Bayezid Osman, great-grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. 6 January 2017 – 18 January 2021 4 years, 12 days
Harun Osman 46th Head of the House of Osman (2021–present) Younger brother of Dündar Ali Osman, great-grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. 18 January 2021–present 3 years, 307 days

Family tree, showing relationships among the heads of the Ottoman dynasty

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Line of succession in November 1922

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ A claim which has come under criticism from many historians, who argue either that the Kayı genealogy was fabricated in the fifteenth century, or that there is otherwise insufficient evidence to believe in it.[1]

References

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  1. ^ Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7. That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it
    • Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. p. 78. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6. Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that...
    • Shaw, Stanford (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. The problem of Ottoman origins has preoccupied students of history, but because of both the absence of contemporary source materials and conflicting accounts written subsequent to the events there seems to be no basis for a definitive statement.
  2. ^ Shaw, Stanford (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press. p. 13.
  3. ^ Çıpa, H. Erdem. The Making of Selim: Succession, Legitimacy, and Memory in the Early Modern Ottoman World. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2017. Page 29.
  4. ^ Fletcher, Joseph. Turco-Mongolian Monarchic Tradition in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Ukrainian Research Institute, 1979. Pages 236–251.
  5. ^ Tezcan, Baki. The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Page 46.
  6. ^ Çıpa. The Making of Selim. Page 31.
  7. ^ Çıpa. The Making of Selim. Page 29.
  8. ^ Peirce, Leslie P. The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. Studies in Middle Eastern History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Page 21.
  9. ^ Tezcan. The Second Ottoman Empire. Page 46.
  10. ^ Çıpa. The Making of Selim. Page 30.
  11. ^ a b Tezcan. The Second Ottoman Empire. Page 47.
  12. ^ Peirce. The Imperial Harem. Page 102.
  13. ^ Tezcan. The Second Ottoman Empire. Page 77.
  14. ^ Peirce. The Imperial Harem. Page 22.
  15. ^ Quataert 2005, p. 90–91.
  16. ^ a b c Quataert 2005, p. 91.
  17. ^ Quataert 2005, p. 91
  18. ^ Quataert, p. 92
  19. ^ Karateke 2005, p. 37–54
  20. ^ İnalcık, Halil (2007). "Osmanlı Beyliği'nin Kurucusu Osman Beg". Belleten (261). Ankara: 487–490.
  21. ^ Diyanet İslâm Ansiklopedisi, vol: 11, pages: 314-315, 1995.
  22. ^ Heath W. Lowry (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-7914-8726-6.
  23. ^ İnalcık, Halil (2007). OSMAN I (PDF). Vol. 33. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 443–453. ISBN 978-9-7538-9590-3.
  24. ^ Diyanet İslâm Ansiklopedisi, vol: 33, pages: 443-453, 2007.
  25. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 112. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6..
  26. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 136. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6..
  27. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. pp. 113–117. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6..
  28. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6. (It is disputed that the names of Âişe and Gül-Bahar belong to two different persons or they designate two different names for the own mother of Yavuz Sultan Selim.)
  29. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 136. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6. (The name of the own mother of Yavuz Sultan Selim is registered as Âişe Hâtûn from The Beylik of Dulkadir in İzahlı Osmanlı Tarihi Kronolojisi of İsmail Hami Danişmend).
  30. ^ Diyanet İslâm Ansiklopedisi, vol: 36, pages: 407-414, 2009 (Âişe Hâtûn is the daughter of Alaüddevle Bozkurt Bey from Dulkadiroğulları. (Although her name was indicated as Gül-Bahar bint-i Abdü's-Samed in some sources, it can easily be understood that this is not true.)
  31. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 221. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6.
  32. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 238. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6.. (The name of Mâh-i Rûze in Persian is composed of Mâh=Moon and Rûz=Day.)
  33. ^ a b Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 224. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6.. (The name of Mâh-Peyker in Persian is composed of Mâh=Moon and Peyker=Face/Countenance. It means Moon-Faced.)
  34. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 280. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6..
  35. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. pp. 253–254. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6..
  36. ^ Diyanet İslâm Ansiklopedisi, vol: 14, pages: 248-249, 1996. (The name of Meh-Pâre in Persian is composed of Meh=Moon and Pâre=Piece. It means Piece of Moon.)
  37. ^ Diyanet İslâm Ansiklopedisi, vol: 36, pages: 45, 2009
  38. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 326. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6..
  39. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 286. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6.. She is the daughter of a poor family in Azapkapı in Istanbul.
  40. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 380. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6..
  41. ^ Diyanet İslâm Ansiklopedisi, vol: 32, pages: 343-344, 2006. (She is of Caucasusian descent. It is untrue that she was from French royal family and her name was not Aimée du Buc de Rivéry.)
  42. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 356. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6. (Marthe Aimée du Buc de Rivéry.)
  43. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 355. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6. (Nakşîdil Sultan was of Circassian descent).
  44. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet [in Turkish] (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak Yayıncılık. p. 356. ISBN 978-9-753-29623-6. (Nakşîdil Sultan was of Georgian descent).
  45. ^ a b Brookes, Douglas (2008). The Concubine, the Princess, and the Teacher: Voices from the Ottoman Harem. University of Texas Press. pp. 278, 285. ISBN 978-0-292-78335-5.
  46. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Opfell, Olga (2001). Royalty who wait: the 21 heads of formerly regnant houses of Europe. McFarland. pp. 146, 151. ISBN 978-0-7864-5057-2.
  47. ^ a b c d Bernstein, Fred. “Ertugrul Osman, Link to Ottoman Dynasty, Dies at 97”, The New York Times (24 September 2009).
  48. ^ a b c Pope, Hugh. "Oldest Ottoman to come home at last", The Independent (22 July 1992).
  49. ^ a b "'Osmanoğulları'na insanlık şehadet edecek' Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine", Zaman (27 September 2009).
  50. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "Osmanoğulları: Sürüldüler Ama Bitmediler (Hayattaki Osmanoğullarının soy agaci)". tarihvemedeniyet.org (in Turkish). 11 March 2013. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
  51. ^ "Hayatta Olan Şehzadeler". Foundation of the Ottoman Dynasty. Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  52. ^ "Osmanlı Hanedanı vakıf çatısı altında toplanıyor". Sabah. 13 September 2010. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
  53. ^ İbrahim Pazan (15 September 2009). "Osmanoğullarının yeni reisi Osman Bayezid Efendi Hazretleri". Netgazete. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
  54. ^ Almanach de Gotha (184th ed.). Almanach de Gotha. 2000. pp. 365, 912–915.
  55. ^ Burke's Royal Families of the World (2 ed.). Burke's Peerage. 1980. p. 247.
  56. ^ "Current Living Şehzades". Official Ottoman Family Website. Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
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House of Osman
New Dynasty
Ruling house of the Ottoman Empire
c. 1299 – 19 November 1922 		Vacant
Preceded by Caliphate dynasty
1517–3 March 1924
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