Wikipedia

Polyvinyl chloride

(Redirected from PVC)
"PVC" redirects here. For other uses, see PVC (disambiguation).

Polyvinyl chloride (alternatively: poly(vinyl chloride),[6][7] colloquial: vinyl[8] or polyvinyl; abbreviated: PVC[8]) is the world's third-most widely produced synthetic polymer of plastic (after polyethylene and polypropylene). About 40 million tons of PVC are produced each year.[9]

Polyvinyl chloride
Repeating unit of PVC polymer chain.
Space-filling model of a part of a PVC chain

Pure PVC powder, containing no plasticizer
Names
IUPAC name
poly(1-chloroethylene)[1]
Other names
Polychloroethene
Identifiers
Abbreviations PVC
ChEBI
ChemSpider
  • none
ECHA InfoCard 100.120.191 Edit this at Wikidata
KEGG
MeSH Polyvinyl+Chloride
Properties
(C2H3Cl)n[2]
Appearance white, brittle solid
Odor odorless
Density 1.4 g/cm3
insoluble
Solubility in ethanol insoluble
Solubility in tetrahydrofuran slightly soluble
−10.71×10−6 (SI, 22 °C)[3]
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentineFlammability 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g. canola oilInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
1
1
0
10 mg/m3 (inhalable), 3 mg/m3 (respirable) (TWA)
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):[4]
PEL (Permissible)
 15 mg/m3 (inhalable), 5 mg/m3 (respirable) (TWA)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Mechanical properties
Elongation at break 20–40%
Notch test 2–5 kJ/m2
Glass Transition Temperature 82 °C (180 °F)[5]
Melting point 100 °C (212 °F) to 260 °C (500 °F)[5]
Effective heat of combustion 17.95 MJ/kg
Specific heat (c) 0.9 kJ/(kg·K)
Water absorption (ASTM) 0.04–0.4
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage 40 MV/m

PVC comes in rigid (sometimes abbreviated as RPVC) and flexible forms. Rigid PVC is used in construction for pipes, doors and windows. It is also used in making plastic bottles, packaging, and bank or membership cards. Adding plasticizers makes PVC softer and more flexible. It is used in plumbing, electrical cable insulation, flooring, signage, phonograph records, inflatable products, and in rubber substitutes.[10] With cotton or linen, it is used in the production of canvas.

Polyvinyl chloride is a white, brittle solid. It is soluble in ketones, chlorinated solvents, Dimethylformamide, THF and DMAc[11] .

Discovery

edit

PVC was synthesized in 1872 by German chemist Eugen Baumann after extended investigation and experimentation.[12] The polymer appeared as a white solid inside a flask of vinyl chloride that had been left on a shelf sheltered from sunlight for four weeks. In the early 20th century, the Russian chemist Ivan Ostromislensky and Fritz Klatte of the German chemical company Griesheim-Elektron both attempted to use PVC in commercial products, but difficulties in processing the rigid, sometimes brittle polymer thwarted their efforts. Waldo Semon and the B.F. Goodrich Company developed a method in 1926 to plasticize PVC by blending it with various additives,[13] including the use of dibutyl phthalate by 1933.[14]

Production

edit

Polyvinyl chloride is produced by polymerization of the vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), as shown.[15]

 

About 80% of production involves suspension polymerization. Emulsion polymerization accounts for about 12%, and bulk polymerization accounts for 8%. Suspension polymerization produces particles with average diameters of 100–180 μm, whereas emulsion polymerization gives much smaller particles of average size around 0.2 μm. VCM and water are introduced into the reactor along with a polymerization initiator and other additives. The contents of the reaction vessel are pressurized and continually mixed to maintain the suspension and ensure a uniform particle size of the PVC resin. The reaction is exothermic and thus requires cooling. As the volume is reduced during the reaction (PVC is denser than VCM), water is continually added to the mixture to maintain the suspension.[9]

PVC may be manufactured from ethylene, which can be produced from either naphtha or ethane feedstock.[16]

Microstructure

edit

The polymers are linear and are strong. The monomers are mainly arranged head-to-tail, meaning that chloride is located on alternating carbon centres. PVC has mainly an atactic stereochemistry, which means that the relative stereochemistry of the chloride centres are random. Some degree of syndiotacticity of the chain gives a few percent crystallinity that is influential on the properties of the material. About 57% of the mass of PVC is chlorine. The presence of chloride groups gives the polymer very different properties from the structurally related material polyethylene.[17] At 1.4 g/cm3, PVC's density is also higher than structurally related plastics such as polyethylene (0.88–0.96 g/cm3) and polymethylmethacrylate (1.18 g/cm3).

Producers

edit

About half of the world's PVC production capacity is in China, despite the closure of many Chinese PVC plants due to issues complying with environmental regulations and poor capacities of scale. The largest single producer of PVC as of 2018 is Shin-Etsu Chemical of Japan, with a global share of around 30%.[16]

Additives

edit

The product of the polymerization process is unmodified PVC. Before PVC can be made into finished products, it always requires conversion into a compound by the incorporation of additives (but not necessarily all of the following) such as heat stabilizers, UV stabilizers, plasticizers, processing aids, impact modifiers, thermal modifiers, fillers, flame retardants, biocides, blowing agents and smoke suppressors, and, optionally, pigments.[18] The choice of additives used for the PVC finished product is controlled by the cost performance requirements of the end use specification (underground pipe, window frames, intravenous tubing and flooring all have very different ingredients to suit their performance requirements). Previously, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were added to certain PVC products as flame retardants and stabilizers.[19]

Plasticizers

edit
Main article: Plasticizers

Among the common plastics, PVC is unique in its acceptance of large amounts of plasticizer with gradual changes in physical properties from a rigid solid to a soft gel,[20] and almost 90% of all plasticizer production is used in making flexible PVC.[21][22] The majority is used in films and cable sheathing.[23] Flexible PVC can consist of over 85% plasticizer by mass, however unplasticized PVC (UPVC) should not contain any.[24]

PVC properties as a function of phthalate plasticizer level[24]
Plasticizer content (% DINP by weight) Specific gravity (20 °C) Shore hardness
(type A, 15 s)		 Flexural stiffness (Mpa) Tensile strength (Mpa) Elongation at break (%) Example applications
Rigid 0 1.4 900 41 <15 Unplasticized PVC (UPVC): window frames and sills, doors, rigid pipe
Semi-rigid 25 1.26 94 69 31 225 Vinyl flooring, flexible pipe, thin films (stretch wrap), advertising banners
Flexible 33 1.22 84 12 21 295 Wire and cable insulation, flexible pipe
Very Flexible 44 1.17 66 3.4 14 400 Boots and clothing, inflatables,
Extremely Flexible 86 1.02 < 10 Fishing lures (soft plastic bait), polymer clay, plastisol inks

Phthalates

edit
Main article: Phthalate

The most common class of plasticizers used in PVC is phthalates, which are diesters of phthalic acid. Phthalates can be categorized as high and low, depending on their molecular weight. Low phthalates such as Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) have increased health risks and are generally being phased out. High-molecular-weight phthalates such as diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP) are generally considered safer.[22]

While DEHP has been medically approved for many years for use in medical devices, it was permanently banned for use in children's products in the US in 2008 by US Congress;[25] the PVC-DEHP combination had proved to be very suitable for making blood bags because DEHP stabilizes red blood cells, minimizing hemolysis (red blood cell rupture). However, DEHP is coming under increasing pressure in Europe. The assessment of potential risks related to phthalates, and in particular the use of DEHP in PVC medical devices, was subject to scientific and policy review by the European Union authorities, and on 21 March 2010, a specific labeling requirement was introduced across the EU for all devices containing phthalates that are classified as CMR (carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction).[26] The label aims to enable healthcare professionals to use this equipment safely, and, where needed, take appropriate precautionary measures for patients at risk of over-exposure[27]

 
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was a common plasticizer for PVC but is being replaced by higher molecular weight phthalates.

Metal stabilizers

edit

BaZn stabilisers have successfully replaced cadmium-based stabilisers in Europe in many PVC semi-rigid and flexible applications.[28]

In Europe, particularly Belgium, there has been a commitment to eliminate the use of cadmium (previously used as a part component of heat stabilizers in window profiles) and phase out lead-based heat stabilizers (as used in pipe and profile areas) such as liquid autodiachromate and calcium polyhydrocummate by 2015. According to the final report of Vinyl 2010,[29] cadmium was eliminated across Europe by 2007. The progressive substitution of lead-based stabilizers is also confirmed in the same document showing a reduction of 75% since 2000 and ongoing. This is confirmed by the corresponding growth in calcium-based stabilizers, used as an alternative to lead-based stabilizers, more and more, also outside Europe.[9]

Heat stabilizers

edit

Some of the most crucial additives are heat stabilizers. These agents minimize loss of HCl, a degradation process that starts above 70 °C (158 °F) and is autocatalytic. Many diverse agents have been used including, traditionally, derivatives of heavy metals (lead, cadmium). Metallic soaps (metal "salts" of fatty acids such as calcium stearate) are common in flexible PVC applications.[9]

Properties

edit

PVC is a thermoplastic polymer. Its properties are usually categorized based on rigid and flexible PVCs.[30]

Property Unit of measurement Rigid PVC Flexible PVC
Density[31] g/cm3 1.3–1.45 1.1–1.35
Thermal conductivity[32] W/(m·K) 0.14–0.28 0.14–0.17
Yield strength[31] psi 4,500–8,700 1,450–3,600
MPa 31–60 10.0–24.8
Young's modulus[33] psi 490,000 —
GPa 3.4 —
Flexural strength (yield)[33] psi 10,500 —
MPa 72 —
Compression strength[33] psi 9,500 —
MPa 66 —
Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear)[33] mm/(mm °C) 5×10−5 —
Vicat B[32] °C 65–100 Not recommended
Resistivity[a][34] Ω m 1016 1012–1015
Surface resistivity[a][34] Ω 1013–1014 1011–1012
Notes
  1. ^ a b At 60% relative humidity and room temperature.

Thermal and fire

edit

The heat stability of raw PVC is very poor, so the addition of a heat stabilizer during the process is necessary in order to ensure the product's properties. Traditional product PVC has a maximum operating temperature around 60 °C (140 °F) when heat distortion begins to occur.[35]

As a thermoplastic, PVC has an inherent insulation that aids in reducing condensation formation and resisting internal temperature changes for hot and cold liquids.[35]

Applications

edit
 
PVC is used extensively in sewage pipes due to its low cost, chemical resistance and ease of jointing

Pipes

edit

Roughly half of the world's PVC resin manufactured annually is used for producing pipes for municipal and industrial applications.[36] In the private homeowner market, it accounts for 66% of the household market in the US, and in household sanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts for 75%.[37][38] Buried PVC pipes in both water and sanitary sewer applications that are 100 mm (4 in) in diameter and larger are typically joined by means of a gasket-sealed joint. The most common type of gasket utilized in North America is a metal-reinforced elastomer, commonly referred to as a Rieber sealing system.[39]

Electric cables

edit

PVC is often used as the insulating sheath on electrical cables. PVC is chosen because of its good electrical insulation, ease of extrusion, and resistance to burn.[40]

In a fire, PVC can form hydrogen chloride fumes; the chlorine serves to scavenge free radicals, making PVC-coated wires fire retardant. While hydrogen chloride fumes can also pose a health hazard in their own right, it dissolves in moisture and breaks down onto surfaces, particularly in areas where the air is cool enough to breathe, so would not be inhaled.[41]

Construction

edit
 
"A modern Tudorbethan" house with uPVC gutters and downspouts, fascia, decorative imitation "half-timbering", windows, and doors

PVC is widely and heavily used in construction and building industry,[9] For example, vinyl siding is extensively is a popular low-maintenance material, particularly in Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. The material comes in a range of colors and finishes, including a photo-effect wood finish, and is used as a substitute for painted wood, mostly for window frames and sills when installing insulated glazing in new buildings; or to replace older single-glazed windows, as it does not decompose and is weather-resistant. Other uses include fascia, and siding or weatherboarding. This material has almost entirely replaced the use of cast iron for plumbing and drainage, being used for waste pipes, drainpipes, gutters and downspouts. PVC is known as having strong resistance against chemicals, sunlight, and oxidation from water.[42]

 
Double glazed units

Signage and graphics

edit

Polyvinyl chloride is formed in flat sheets in a variety of thicknesses and colors. As flat sheets, PVC is often expanded to create voids in the interior of the material, providing additional thickness without additional weight and minimal extra cost (see closed-cell PVC foamboard). Sheets are cut using saws and rotary cutting equipment.

Plasticized PVC is also used to produce thin, colored, or clear, adhesive-backed films referred to simply as "vinyl". These films are typically cut on a computer-controlled plotter (see vinyl cutter) or printed in a wide-format printer. These sheets and films are used to produce a wide variety of commercial signage products, vinyl wraps or racing stripes on vehicles for aesthetics or as wrap advertising, and general purpose stickers.[43]

Clothing

edit
 
Black PVC trousers
Main article: PVC clothing

PVC fabric is water-resistant, used for its weather-resistant qualities in coats, skiing equipment, shoes, jackets, and aprons.[citation needed]

Healthcare

edit

The two main application areas for single-use medically approved PVC compounds are flexible containers and tubing: containers used for blood and blood components, for urine collection or for ostomy products and tubing used for blood taking and blood giving sets, catheters, heart-lung bypass sets, hemodialysis sets etc. In Europe the consumption of PVC from medical devices is approximately 85,000 tons each year. Almost one third of plastic-based medical devices are made from PVC.[44]

Food packaging

edit

PVC has been applied to various items such as: bottles,[45] packaging films,[45] blister packs,[45] cling wraps,[45] and seals on metal lids.

Wire rope

edit

PVC may be extruded under pressure to encase wire rope and aircraft cable used for general purpose applications. PVC coated wire rope is easier to handle, resists corrosion and abrasion, and may be color-coded for increased visibility. It is found in a variety of industries and environments both indoor and out.[46]

Other uses

edit
 
A vinyl record.

Molded PVC is used to produce phonograph, or "vinyl," records. PVC piping is a cheaper alternative to metal tubing used in musical instrument making; it is therefore a common alternative when making wind instruments, often for leisure or for rarer instruments such as the contrabass flute. An instrument that is almost exclusively built from PVC tube is the thongophone, a percussion instrument that is played by slapping the open tubes with a flip-flop or similar.[47] PVC is also used as a raw material in automotive underbody coating.[48]

Chlorinated PVC

edit
Main article: Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride

PVC can be usefully modified by chlorination, which increases its chlorine content to or above 67%. Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, (CPVC), as it is called, is produced by chlorination of aqueous solution of suspension PVC particles followed by exposure to UV light which initiates the free-radical chlorination.[9]

Health and safety

edit

Plasticizers

edit

Phthalates, which are incorporated into plastics as plasticizers, comprise approximately 70% of the US plasticizer market; phthalates are by design not covalently bound to the polymer matrix, which makes them highly susceptible to leaching. Phthalates are contained in plastics at high percentages. For example, they can contribute up to 40% by weight to intravenous medical bags and up to 80% by weight in medical tubing.[49] Vinyl products are pervasive—including toys,[50] car interiors, shower curtains, and flooring—and initially release chemical gases into the air. Some studies indicate that this outgassing of additives may contribute to health complications, and have resulted in a call for banning the use of DEHP on shower curtains, among other uses.[51]

In 2004 a joint Swedish-Danish research team found a statistical association between allergies in children and indoor air levels of DEHP and BBzP (butyl benzyl phthalate), which is used in vinyl flooring.[52] In December 2006, the European Chemicals Bureau of the European Commission released a final draft risk assessment of BBzP which found "no concern" for consumer exposure including exposure to children.[53]

Lead

edit

Lead compounds had previously been widely added to PVC to improve workability and stability but have been shown to leach into drinking water from PVC pipes.[54]

In Europe the use of lead-based stabilizers has been discontinued. The VinylPlus voluntary commitment which began in 2000, saw European Stabiliser Producers Association (ESPA) members complete the replacement of Pb-based stabilisers in 2015.[55][56]

Vinyl chloride monomer

edit
Main article: Vinyl chloride

In the early 1970s, the carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride (usually called vinyl chloride monomer or VCM) was linked to cancers in workers in the polyvinyl chloride industry. Specifically workers in polymerization section of a B.F. Goodrich plant near Louisville, Kentucky, were diagnosed with liver angiosarcoma also known as hemangiosarcoma, a rare disease.[57] Since that time, studies of PVC workers in Australia, Italy, Germany, and the UK have all associated certain types of occupational cancers with exposure to vinyl chloride, and it has become accepted that VCM is a carcinogen.[9]

Combustion

edit

PVC produces HCl and carbon dioxide upon combustion.

Dioxins

edit
Main article: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins

Studies of household waste burning indicate consistent increases in dioxin generation with increasing PVC concentrations.[58] According to the U.S. EPA dioxin inventory, landfill fires are likely to represent an even larger source of dioxin to the environment. A survey of international studies consistently identifies high dioxin concentrations in areas affected by open waste burning and a study that looked at the homologue pattern found the sample with the highest dioxin concentration was "typical for the pyrolysis of PVC". Other EU studies indicate that PVC likely "accounts for the overwhelming majority of chlorine that is available for dioxin formation during landfill fires."[58]

The next largest sources of dioxin in the U.S. EPA inventory are medical and municipal waste incinerators.[59] Various studies have been conducted that reach contradictory results. For instance a study of commercial-scale incinerators showed no relationship between the PVC content of the waste and dioxin emissions.[60][61] Other studies have shown a clear correlation between dioxin formation and chloride content and indicate that PVC is a significant contributor to the formation of both dioxin and PCB in incinerators.[62][63][64]

In February 2007, the Technical and Scientific Advisory Committee of the US Green Building Council (USGBC) released its report on a PVC avoidance related materials credit for the LEED Green Building Rating system. The report concludes that "no single material shows up as the best across all the human health and environmental impact categories, nor as the worst" but that the "risk of dioxin emissions puts PVC consistently among the worst materials for human health impacts."[65]

In Europe the overwhelming importance of combustion conditions on dioxin formation has been established by numerous researchers. The single most important factor in forming dioxin-like compounds is the temperature of the combustion gases. Oxygen concentration also plays a major role on dioxin formation, but not the chlorine content.[66]

Several studies have also shown that removing PVC from waste would not significantly reduce the quantity of dioxins emitted. The EU Commission published in July 2000 a Green Paper on the Environmental Issues of PVC"[67]

A study commissioned by the European Commission on "Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of principal competing materials" states that "Recent studies show that the presence of PVC has no significant effect on the amount of dioxins released through incineration of plastic waste."[68]

Industry initiatives

edit

In Europe, developments in PVC waste management have been monitored by Vinyl 2010,[69] established in 2000. Vinyl 2010's objective was to recycle 200,000 tonnes of post-consumer PVC waste per year in Europe by the end of 2010, excluding waste streams already subject to other or more specific legislation (such as the European Directives on End-of-Life Vehicles, Packaging and Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment).[citation needed]

Since June 2011, it is followed by VinylPlus, a new set of targets for sustainable development.[70] Its main target is to recycle 800,000 tonnes per year of PVC by 2020 including 100,000 tonnes of "difficult to recycle" waste. One facilitator for collection and recycling of PVC waste is Recovinyl.[71] The reported and audited mechanically recycled PVC tonnage in 2016 was 568,695 tonnes which in 2018 had increased to 739,525 tonnes.[72]

One approach to address the problem of waste PVC is also through the process called Vinyloop. It is a mechanical recycling process using a solvent to separate PVC from other materials. This solvent turns in a closed loop process in which the solvent is recycled. Recycled PVC is used in place of virgin PVC in various applications: coatings for swimming pools, shoe soles, hoses, diaphragms tunnel, coated fabrics, PVC sheets.[73] This recycled PVC's primary energy demand is 46 percent lower than conventional produced PVC. So the use of recycled material leads to a significant better ecological footprint. The global warming potential is 39 percent lower.[74]

Restrictions

edit

In November 2005, one of the largest hospital networks in the US, Catholic Healthcare West, signed a contract with B. Braun Melsungen for vinyl-free intravenous bags and tubing.[75]

In January 2012, a major US West Coast healthcare provider, Kaiser Permanente, announced that it will no longer buy intravenous (IV) medical equipment made with PVC and DEHP-type plasticizers.[76]

In 1998, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) arrived at a voluntary agreement with manufacturers to remove phthalates from PVC rattles, teethers, baby bottle nipples and pacifiers.[77]

Vinyl gloves in medicine

edit
 
Vinyl gloves

Plasticized PVC is a common material for medical gloves. Due to vinyl gloves having less flexibility and elasticity, several guidelines recommend either latex or nitrile gloves for clinical care and procedures that require manual dexterity or that involve patient contact for more than a brief period. Vinyl gloves show poor resistance to many chemicals, including glutaraldehyde-based products and alcohols used in formulation of disinfectants for swabbing down work surfaces or in hand rubs. The additives in PVC are also known to cause skin reactions such as allergic contact dermatitis. These are for example the antioxidant bisphenol A, the biocide benzisothiazolinone, propylene glycol/adipate polyester and ethylhexylmaleate.[78]

Sustainability

edit

The life cycle, sustainability, and appropriateness of PVC are discussed.[79][by whom?] In Europe, a 2021 VinylPlus Progress Report indicated that 731,461 tonnes PVC were recycled in 2020, a 5% reduction compared to 2019 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[80]

See also

edit

References

edit

General references

edit
  • Titow, W. (1984). PVC Technology. London: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. ISBN 978-0-85334-249-6.

Inline citations

edit
  1. ^ "poly(vinyl chloride) (CHEBI:53243)". CHEBI. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 12 July 2012.
  2. ^ "Substance Details CAS Registry Number: 9002-86-2". Commonchemistry. CAS. Archived from the original on 21 May 2018. Retrieved 12 July 2012.
  3. ^ Wapler, M. C.; Leupold, J.; Dragonu, I.; von Elverfeldt, D.; Zaitsev, M.; Wallrabe, U. (2014). "Magnetic properties of materials for MR engineering, micro-MR and beyond". JMR. 242: 233–242. arXiv:1403.4760. Bibcode:2014JMagR.242..233W. doi:10.1016/j.jmr.2014.02.005. PMID 24705364. S2CID 11545416.
  4. ^ "Material Safety Data Sheet: PVC Compounds Pellet and Powder" (PDF). Georgia Gulf Chemical and Vinyls LLC. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
  5. ^ a b Wilkes, Charles E.; Summers, James W.; Daniels, Charles Anthony; Berard, Mark T. (2005). PVC Handbook. Hanser Verlag. p. 414. ISBN 978-1-56990-379-7. Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  6. ^ "Poly(vinyl chloride)". MilliporeSigma. 2022. Archived from the original on 11 October 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  7. ^ "Poly(Vinyl Chloride)".
  8. ^ a b "About PVC". The European Council of Vinyl Manufacturers. Archived from the original on 5 December 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Allsopp, M. W.; Vianello, G. (2012). "Poly(Vinyl Chloride)". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_717. ISBN 978-3527306732.
  10. ^ W. V. Titow (31 December 1984). PVC technology. Springer. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-0-85334-249-6. Archived from the original on 26 May 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2011.
  11. ^ Grause, Guido; Hirahashi, Suguru; Toyoda, Hiroshi; Kameda, Tomohito; Yoshioka, Toshiaki (2017). "Solubility parameters for determining optimal solvents for separating PVC from PVC-coated PET fibers". Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. 19: 612–622. doi:10.1007/s10163-015-0457-9.
  12. ^ Baumann, E. (1872) "Ueber einige Vinylverbindungen" Archived 17 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine (On some vinyl compounds), Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 163 : 308–322.
  13. ^ Semon, Waldo L.; Stahl, G. Allan (April 1981). "History of Vinyl Chloride Polymers". Journal of Macromolecular Science: Part A - Chemistry. 15 (6): 1263–1278. doi:10.1080/00222338108066464.
  14. ^ US 1929453, Waldo Semon, "Synthetic rubber-like composition and method of making same", published 1933-10-10, assigned to B.F. Goodrich  Archived 26 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ Chanda, Manas; Roy, Salil K. (2006). Plastics technology handbook. CRC Press. pp. 1–6. ISBN 978-0-8493-7039-7.
  16. ^ a b "Shin-Etsu Chemical to build $1.4bn polyvinyl chloride plant in US". Nikkei Asian Review. Archived from the original on 24 July 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  17. ^ Handbook of Plastics, Elastomers, and Composites, Fourth Edition, 2002 by The McGraw-Hill, Charles A. Harper Editor-in-Chief. ISBN 0-07-138476-6
  18. ^ David F. Cadogan and Christopher J. Howick "Plasticizers" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a20_439
  19. ^ Karlen, Kaley. "Health Concerns and Environmental Issues with PVC-Containing Building Materials in Green Buildings" (PDF). Integrated Waste Management Board. California Environmental Protection Agency, US. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  20. ^ Krauskopf, Leonard G. (2009). "3.13 Plasticizers". Plastics additives handbook (6. ed.). Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag. pp. 485–511. ISBN 978-3-446-40801-2.
  21. ^ David F. Cadogan and Christopher J. Howick "Plasticizers" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a20_439
  22. ^ a b "factsheets - Plasticisers - Information Center". Plasticisers. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  23. ^ "Plasticizers Market Report". Ceresana. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  24. ^ a b Krauskopf, L. G. (2009). Plastics additives handbook (6. ed.). Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag. p. 495. ISBN 978-3-446-40801-2.
  25. ^ "Phthalates and DEHP". Health Care Without Harm. 29 April 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2021.[permanent dead link‍]
  26. ^ Opinion on The safety of medical devices containing DEHP plasticized PVC or other plasticizers on neonates and other groups possibly at risk (2015 update) Archived 3 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly-Identified Health Risks (25 June 2015).
  27. ^ "You searched for DEHP - Plasticisers - Information Center". Plasticisers. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  28. ^ Liquid stabilisers. Seuropean Stabiliser Producers Association
  29. ^ Vinyl 2010. The European PVC Industry's Sustainable Development Programme
  30. ^ "DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PVC COMPOUNDS". Green PVC. 12 August 2021. Archived from the original on 16 December 2021.
  31. ^ a b Titow 1984, p. 1186.
  32. ^ a b Titow 1984, p. 1191.
  33. ^ a b c d Titow 1984, p. 857.
  34. ^ a b Titow 1984, p. 1194.
  35. ^ a b Michael A. Joyce, Michael D. Joyce (2004). Residential Construction Academy: Plumbing. Cengage Learning. pp. 63–64.
  36. ^ Rahman, Shah (19–20 June 2007). PVC Pipe & Fittings: Underground Solutions for Water and Sewer Systems in North America (PDF). 2nd Brazilian PVC Congress, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
  37. ^ Uses for vinyl: pipe. vinylbydesign.com
  38. ^ Rahman, Shah (October 2004). "Thermoplastics at Work: A Comprehensive Review of Municipal PVC Piping Products" (PDF). Underground Construction: 56–61. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  39. ^ Shah Rahman (April 2007). "Sealing Our Buried Lifelines" (PDF). Opflow. 33 (4): 12–17. Bibcode:2007Opflo..33d..12R. doi:10.1002/j.1551-8701.2007.tb02753.x. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
  40. ^ Titow 1984, p. 717 PVC coating of wire and cable
  41. ^ Galloway FM, Hirschler MM, Smith GF (1992). "Surface parameters from small-scale experiments used for measuring HCl transport and decay in fire atmospheres". Fire Mater. 15 (4): 181–189. doi:10.1002/fam.810150405.
  42. ^ Strong, A. Brent (2005) Plastics: Materials and Processing. Prentice Hall. pp. 36–37, 68–72. ISBN 0131145584.
  43. ^ Ellis, R. "Vinyl: an Honest Conversation". Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
  44. ^ PVC Healthcare Applications. pvcmed.org
  45. ^ a b c d Marsh, Kenneth; Bigusu, Betty (31 March 2007). "Food Packaging – Roles, Materials, and Environmental Issues". Journal of Food Science. 72 (3): R43. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00301.x. ISSN 1750-3841. PMID 17995809.
  46. ^ "Coated Aircraft Cable & Wire Rope". Lexco Cable. Archived from the original on 26 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  47. ^ Building a PVC Instrument. natetrue.com
  48. ^ Takata, Ayumi; Ohashi, Yutaka (2002). "Post PVC Sound Insulating Underbody coating". SAE Technical Paper Series. Vol. 1. doi:10.4271/2002-01-0293.
  49. ^ Halden, Rolf U. (2010). "Plastics and Health Risks". Annual Review of Public Health. 31 (1): 179–194. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103714. PMID 20070188.
  50. ^ Directive 2005/84/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 14 December 2005 Archived 4 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Official Journal of the European Union. 27 December 2005
  51. ^ Vinyl shower curtains a 'volatile' hazard, study says Archived 4 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Canada.com (12 June 2008). Retrieved on 6 October 2011.
  52. ^ Bornehag, Carl-Gustaf; Sundell, Jan; Weschler, Charles J.; Sigsgaard, Torben; Lundgren, Björn; Hasselgren, Mikael; Hägerhed-Engman, Linda; et al. (2004). "The Association between Asthma and Allergic Symptoms in Children and Phthalates in House Dust: A Nested Case–Control Study". Environmental Health Perspectives. 112 (14): 1393–1397. doi:10.1289/ehp.7187. PMC 1247566. PMID 15471731.
  53. ^ Phthalate Information Center Blog: More good news from Europe. phthalates.org (3 January 2007)
  54. ^ "China's PVC pipe makers under pressure to give up lead stabilizers". 6 September 2013.
  55. ^ "Lead replacement". European Stabiliser Producers Association. Archived from the original on 5 December 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  56. ^ "VinylPlus Progress Report 2016" (PDF). VinylPlus. 30 April 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2016.
  57. ^ Creech, J. L. Jr.; Johnson, M. N. (March 1974). "Angiosarcoma of liver in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride". Journal of Occupational Medicine. 16 (3): 150–1. PMID 4856325.
  58. ^ a b Costner, Pat (2005) "Estimating Releases and Prioritizing Sources in the Context of the Stockholm Convention" Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, International POPs Elimination Network, Mexico.
  59. ^ Beychok, M.R. (1987). "A data base of dioxin and furan emissions from municipal refuse incinerators". Atmospheric Environment. 21 (1): 29–36. Bibcode:1987AtmEn..21...29B. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(87)90267-8.
  60. ^ National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Polyvinyl Chloride Plastics in Municipal Solid Waste Combustion Archived 15 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine NREL/TP-430- 5518, Golden CO, April 1993
  61. ^ Rigo, H. G.; Chandler, A. J.; Lanier, W.S. (1995). The Relationship between Chlorine in Waste Streams and Dioxin Emissions from Waste Combustor Stacks (PDF). Vol. 36. New York, NY: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ISBN 978-0-7918-1222-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2009. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  62. ^ Katami, Takeo; Yasuhara, Akio; Okuda, Toshikazu; Shibamoto, Takayuki; et al. (2002). "Formation of PCDDs, PCDFs, and Coplanar PCBs from Polyvinyl Chloride during Combustion in an Incinerator". Environ. Sci. Technol. 36 (6): 1320–1324. Bibcode:2002EnST...36.1320K. doi:10.1021/es0109904. PMID 11944687.
  63. ^ Wagner, J.; Green, A. (1993). "Correlation of chlorinated organic compound emissions from incineration with chlorinated organic input". Chemosphere. 26 (11): 2039–2054. Bibcode:1993Chmsp..26.2039W. doi:10.1016/0045-6535(93)90030-9.
  64. ^ Thornton, Joe (2002). Environmental Impacts of polyvinyl Chloride Building Materials (PDF). Washington, DC: Healthy Building Network. ISBN 978-0-9724632-0-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2011.
  65. ^ The USGBC document Archived 13 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine; An analysis by the Healthy Building NEtwork Archived 2 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  66. ^ Wikstrom, Evalena; G. Lofvenius; C. Rappe; S. Marklund (1996). "Influence of Level and Form of Chlorine on the Formation of Chlorinated Dioxins, Dibenzofurans, and Benzenes during Combustion of an Artificial Fuel in a Laboratory Reactor". Environmental Science & Technology. 30 (5): 1637–1644. Bibcode:1996EnST...30.1637W. doi:10.1021/es9506364.
  67. ^ Environmental issues of PVC Archived 12 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. European Commission. Brussels, 26 July 2000
  68. ^ Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of principal competing materials Commissioned by the European Commission. European Commission (July 2004), p. 96
  69. ^ Home – Vinyl 2010 The European PVC industry commitment to Sustainability Archived 25 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Vinyl2010.org (22 June 2011). Retrieved on 6 October 2011.
  70. ^ Our Voluntary Commitment. vinylplus.eu
  71. ^ Incentives to collect and recycle Archived 19 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Recovinyl.com. Retrieved on 28 January 2016.
  72. ^ "VinylPlus Progress Report 2019" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  73. ^ Solvay, asking more from chemistry Archived 1 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Solvayplastics.com (15 July 2013). Retrieved on 28 January 2016.
  74. ^ Solvay, asking more from chemistry Archived 16 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive. Solvayplastics.com (15 July 2013). Retrieved on 28 January 2016.
  75. ^ "CHW Switches to PVC/DEHP-Free Products to Improve Patient Safety and Protect the Environment". Business Wire. 21 November 2005. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
  76. ^ Smock, Doug (19 January 2012) Kaiser Permanente bans PVC tubing and bags. plasticstoday.com
  77. ^ "PVC Policies Across the World". chej.org. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  78. ^ "Vinyl Gloves: Causes For Concern" (PDF). Ansell (glove manufacturer). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  79. ^ London 2012 Use of PVC Policy Archived 1 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. independent.gov.uk.
  80. ^ "VinylPlus at a Glance 2021 - VinylPlus". Vinylplus.eu. 17 May 2021. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
edit
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Polyvinyl chloride.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyvinyl_chloride&oldid=1251018673"