Pahawh Hmong

Pahawh Hmong
𖬖𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬄𖬶𖬟 𖬌𖬣𖬵
Pahawh Hmong; 𖬖𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬄𖬶𖬟 𖬌𖬣𖬵;
	"Phaj Hauj Hmoob" in Pahawh
Script type	Semisyllabary (onset–rime; vowel-centered equivalent of an abugida)
Creator	Shong Lue Yang
Time period	1959–present
Direction	Left-to-right
Languages	Hmong Daw, Hmong Njua
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Hmng (450), Pahawh Hmong
Unicode
Unicode alias	Pahawh Hmong
Unicode range	U+16B00–U+16B8F; Final Accepted Script Proposal

Pahawh Hmong (RPA: Phaj hauj Hmoob [pʰâ hâu m̥ɔ̃́], Pahawh: 𖬖𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬄𖬶𖬟 𖬌𖬣𖬵 [pʰâ hâu m̥ɔ̃́]; known also as Ntawv Pahawh, Ntawv Keeb, Ntawv Caub Fab, Ntawv Soob Lwj) is an indigenous semi-syllabic script, invented in 1959 by Shong Lue Yang, to write two Hmong languages, Hmong Daw (Hmoob Dawb White Miao) and Hmong Njua AKA Hmong Leng (Moob Leeg Green Miao).

This article contains Pahawh Hmong Unicode characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of the Pahawh Hmong characters.

Terminology

The term Phaj hauj means "to unite," "to resist division," or "to have peace" in Hmong.^{[citation needed]}

Form

Pahawh is written from left to right. Each syllable is written with two letters, an onset (la, an initial consonant or consonant cluster) and a rime (yu, a vowel, diphthong, or vowel plus final consonant).^[1] However, the order of these elements is rime-initial, the opposite of their spoken order. (That is, each syllable would seem to be written right to left if it were transcribed literally into the Roman alphabet.) This is an indication that Shong conceived of the rimes as primary; Pahawh Hmong might therefore be thought of as a vowel-centered abugida. Tones and many onsets are distinguished by diacritics.

The onset k is not written, so that a rime letter (V) written by itself is read as kV. Nor is the rime au (on mid tone) written, so that an onset letter (C) written by itself is read Cau, except following a bare rime, as otherwise these could be read as a single syllable. The absence of an onset, however, is indicated with a null-onset letter. Again, this is similar to an abugida, but with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed.^[2]

For an example of the positional variation, consider the phrase (in RPA orthography) kuv rau tshais rau koj noj "I serve you breakfast". Since the first word, kuv, starts with a k, it is written as the bare rime uv in Pahawh. The word rau, with mid-tone au as the rime, is normally written as a bare onset r, and indeed this is the case for the second instance in this sentence. However, since the first rau follows a bare rime, it cannot be written as a bare onset r, or the combination might be read as ruv rather than kuv rau. Therefore, the combination kuv rau is written uv rau rather than uv r, with the rime au made explicit (Smalley et al. 1990:58).

Here is the aforementioned sentence in Pahawh, written using the third stage: 𖬇 𖬅𖬰𖬡 𖬋𖬲𖬪𖬰 𖬡 𖬒𖬲 𖬒𖬲𖬬

Orthographic conventions in Pahawh
Written order	es	e	s	0e	0	e áus	es#	eŝ	és
Read as	[séŋ]	[kéŋ]	[sau]	[éŋ]	[au]	[kéŋsau]	[séŋséŋ]	[nyéŋ]	[sè’]

Pahawh onsets. Except for the null onset series at lower right, these are consistent for stages 2–4. Row 3 reads l-, dl-, dlh- in Hmong Njua.

Pahawh rimes, stage 2. The tone diacritics are irregular. Note that -v tone is sometimes written with the left-hand rime glyph, sometimes with the right. In stage 3, it is consistently written with the right-hand glyph, and all tones have the diacritics of koo above: [left glyph] -b none, -m dot, -j macron; [right glyph] -v none, - dot, -s macron, -g trema. When used, -d tone takes the left-hand glyphs with a stroke ⟨'⟩ diacritic. The ia and a rows may be read a and aa in Hmong Njua.

Pahawh has twenty onset letters to transcribe sixty phonemic onsets. This is accomplished with two diacritics, a dot and a tack, written above the onset. However, although there is some scattered similarity between the sounds of the resulting forms, there is no overall pattern to the system. For example, the letter for h with a dot is pronounced th, and with a tack is pronounced pl. The null consonant does not take diacritics in Hmong Daw, but does in Hmong Njua, for two onsets, ndl and ndlh, which only occur in Hmong Njua. (Similarly, Daw d and dh, which do not occur in Njua, are used for Njua dl and dlh, which do not occur in Daw.)

The rimes, in contrast, are over-specified. There are thirteen rime sounds, but twenty-six letters to represent them. One of each pair takes four of the eight tones, while the other takes the other four tones. Diacritics (none, dot, macron, and trema) distinguish the tones that each rime letter may carry. One of the tones, written -d in RPA, is not phonemic but is a prosodic unit-final allophone of the creaky register -m. It may be written in Pahawh by changing the dot diacritic to a short stroke, but it is not used by many people.

Shong used the rimes with the values kiab and kab in Hmong Daw for kab and kaab (/káŋ/) in Hmong Njua. However, Cwjmem retains the Daw values for Njua and adds a pipe (|) to the left of kab kam kad kaj etc. to write kaab kaam kaad kaaj etc.

In addition to phonetic elements, Pahawh Hmong has a minor logographic component, with characters for

the numerals 0–10, ×10² (hundreds), ×10⁴ (myriads), ×10⁶ (millions), ×10⁸, ×10¹⁰, and ×10¹² (trillions), though the higher numerals have been dropped leaving a positional decimal system
arithmetical signs
periods of time: year, season, month, day, date
the most common grammatical classifier, lub, which when written out phonetically consists of two very similar letters, and
eighteen clan signs. These were never disseminated, but were intended to clarify personal relationships in Hmong refugee camps, where people regularly met strangers of unknown clan. Strict taboos govern the behavior of Hmong men and women from the same clan.

Punctuation is derived from the Roman alphabet, presumably through French or Lao,^[3] except for a sign introduced by one of Shong's disciples that replaced Shong's ⟨!⟩, but also includes a native sign for reduplication and a native cantillation mark.

Second and third stage tones

There are two orthographic systems in use for Pahawh Hmong, the second reduced stage from 1965 and the third reduced stage from 1970 (see history, below). Some Hmong communities consider the second stage to be more authentic, while others prefer the third stage as being more regular. It would appear that stage two is more widespread.

The differences are primarily in tone assignment. Bare rimes—that is, rime letters without a tone diacritic—have various values in stage two, but are regularly high tone (-b) or rising tone (-v) in stage three. Likewise, although the pedagogic charts are organized so that each column corresponds to a single tone, the tonic diacritics are scattered about the columns in stage two, but correspond to them in stage three. (Stage 4, which today is only used for shorthand, dispenses with the -v rime letters, replacing them with additional diacritics on the -b rime letters, so that each rime and tone has a single dedicated glyph.)

Tone transcription is that of the Romanized Popular Alphabet.

Tone values of bare rimes
Text	Image	Stage Two	Stage Three
𖬀		keem	keeb
𖬁		kee	keev
𖬂		kim	kib
𖬃		ki	kiv
𖬄	PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAUB	kaum	kaub
𖬅	PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAUV	kau	kauv
𖬆		kum	kub
𖬇		ku	kuv
𖬈		kem	keb
𖬉		kev	kev
𖬊		kaim	kaib
𖬋		kai	kaiv
𖬌		koob	koob
𖬍		koov	koov
𖬎		kawb	kawb
𖬏		kaw	kawv
𖬐	PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KUAB	kuam	kuab
𖬑		kua	kuav
𖬒		kom	kob
𖬓		kog	kov
𖬔		kiab	kiab
𖬕		kia	kiav
𖬖	PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAB	kam	kab
𖬗		kav	kav
𖬘		kwm	kwb
𖬙		kwv	kwv
𖬚		kaam	kaab
𖬛		kaav	kaav

History

Rimes of stage 1
(Hmong Daw values)

Pahawh Hmong was the product of a native messianic movement, based on the idea that, throughout history, God had given the Hmong power through the gift of writing, and revoked it as divine retribution.^{[citation needed]}

In 1959 Shong Lue Yang (RPA: Soob Lwj Yaj; Pahawh Hmong: 𖬌𖬤𖬵 𖬘𖬲𖬞 𖬖𖬲𖬤), a Hmong spiritual leader from Laos, created Pahawh. Yang was not previously literate in any language.^[4] An illiterate peasant, Shong claimed to be the Son of God, messiah of the Hmong and Khmu people, and that God had revealed Pahawh to him in 1959, in northern Vietnam near the border with Laos, to restore writing to the Hmong and Khmu people. Over the next twelve years he and his disciples taught it as part of a Hmong cultural revival movement, mostly in Laos after Shong had fled Communist Vietnam. The Khmuic version of the script never caught on, and has disappeared. Shong continually modified the Hmong script, producing four increasingly sophisticated versions, until he was assassinated by Laotian soldiers in 1971 to stop his growing influence as part of the opposition resistance. Knowledge of the later stages of Pahawh come to us through his disciple Chia Koua Vang, who corresponded with Shong in prison.

Onsets of stage 1
(Hmong Daw values)

The first stage of Pahawh, Pahawh Pa (RPA: Paj hawj Paj; Pahawh: 𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬎𖬲𖬟 𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬵), common called the source version, had distinct glyphs for all 60 onsets and 91 rimes of both Hmong Daw and Hmong Njua. Although there were diacritics, there was no relationship between them and the sound values of the letters, and many of the diacritics are unique to a single letter. Among the rimes, there was a strong tendency for letters which differed only in diacritic to share the same vowel and differ in tone. However, this was not absolute. For example, a letter shaped like Ü stood for the rime iaj, while U, differing only in its diacritic, stood for the rime us. Plain U without a diacritic did not occur. Similarly, the letter that, without a diacritic, represents the rime ag, when combined with a diacritic dot represents the onset rh. Thus it can be seen that at this stage the diacritics were integral parts of their letters, with only the beginnings of an independent existence.^{[citation needed]}

Stage 1 was abandoned after Shong revealed the second stage, with only the occasional glyph showing up when people who know it write using other versions. However, it is not considered obsolete, as people remember Shong's instructions to use this source of all later Pahawh as a sacred script

Pahawh Pa (Phajhawj Paj)

The second stage, Pahawh Njia Dua O (RPA: Paj hawj Ntsiab Duas Ob; Pahawh: 𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬎𖬲𖬟 𖬔𖬝 𖬑𖬲𖬞𖬰 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰) "second stage reduced version", was the first practical Hmong script. It was taught by Shong in 1965 and is supported today by the Australian Language Institute and Cwjmem (Everson 1999). The consonants are graphically regular, in that each column in the pedagogic charts contains the same diacritic, but are phonetically irregular, in that the diacritics have no consistent meaning. (This situation remained in all later stages.) Tone assignment is irregular, in that the diacritics do not represent specific tones with the rimes any more than they represent specific features with the consonants. For example, the trema sometimes represents the -b tone, sometimes -j, -v, or -g, depending on which rime it is added to. The one exception is the -d "tone", which is actually a prosodic inflection of the -m tone. Shong added a specific diacritic for this when Chia, who was familiar with RPA, asked him how RPA -d should be written, but it was treated as extraneous to the tone system, was not included in the rime charts, and was not always taught to Shong's disciples.

Pahawh Njia Dua O (Pajhawj Ntsiab Duas Ob)
The third stage, Pahawh Njia Dua Pe (RPA: Paj hawj Ntsiab Duas Peb; Pahawh: 𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬎𖬲𖬟 𖬔𖬝 𖬑𖬲𖬞𖬰 𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵) "third stage reduced version", introduced in 1970, regularized tone assignment, which was irregular in the second stage. It restores the null onset, which with the addition of diacritics covers Hmong Njua consonants not found in Hmong Daw, that had been found in stage 1, but does not otherwise change the onsets. Chia believes the lack of this series in stage two was merely an oversight on his part in his prison correspondence with Shong (Smalley et al. 1990:70). It was not distributed as widely in Laos as the second stage, due to fear of admitting knowledge of the script after the Communist takeover. Both second and third stage are currently in use in different Hmong communities; however, because the third stage did not appear widely until after Shong's death, there is a suspicion in many communities that it and the fourth stage were invented by Shong's disciples, and therefore are not authentic Pahawh. In the third stage, there is also presence of different signs for month, tens, and zero.

Pahawh Njia Dua Pe (Pajhawj Ntsiab Duas Peb)

The final version, Pahawh Tsa (RPA: Paj hawj Txha; Pahawh: 𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬎𖬲𖬟 𖬗𖬰𖬦𖬰) "core version", published in 1971 just a month before Shong's death, was a radical simplification with one letter per rime and one diacritic per tone. The onsets were not changed. The only graphic addition was that of three new tone marks, for seven total, but half of the rimes were eliminated: The -b, -m, -d, -j tones are written as in stage 3; the -v, -, -s, -g tones now use the same rime letters as the other tones but with different diacritics: circumflex, underlined dot, underlined stroke, and diaeresis. (The diaeresis is retained from stage 3, so only the rime letter changes for this tone.) Stage 4 is not widely known, but is used as a kind of shorthand by some who do know it; indeed, it may be called "Hmong shorthand" in English.

Pahawh Tsa (Pajhawj Txha)

Number of Pahawh glyphs at each stage
Sounds	Stage 1	Stage 2	Stage 3	Stage 4
Rimes	91	91 based on 26	26	13
Tones	91	91 based on 26	7–8 (3–4 diacritics)	8 (7 diacritics)
Onsets	60	19×3	20×3	20×3

Pahawh is not as widespread as RPA romanization for writing Hmong, partially because of the difficulties in typesetting it, but it is a source of great pride for many Hmong who do not use it, as in Southeast Asia every respectable language has a script of its own, which RPA does not provide.^{[citation needed]} However, for some educated Hmong, Pahawh is considered an embarrassing remnant of a superstitious past (Smalley et al. 1990:165).

Chao Fa (means "Lord of the Sky" in Lao, Hmong: Cob Fab 𖬒𖬯 𖬖𖬜𖬵 ^[5]), which literally translates to the "Heavenly Lord", is a Hmong group whose anti-Laotian government uses this writing system.^[4] Since 1975 until today, the Hmong Chao Fa, isolated from the rest of the world, has been heavily persecuted by the Lao People's Democratic Republic, nonstop and without resolution.

Phonology

Vowels

𖬀𖬶	𖬀	𖬀𖬰	𖬀𖬲	𖬁	𖬁𖬰	𖬁𖬲
Keeb	Keem	Keej	Keev	Kee	Kees	Keeg
[ẽ˥ / eŋ˥]	[ẽˀ˩ / eŋˀ˩]	[ẽ˦˥ / eŋ˦˥]	[ẽ˥˧ / eŋ˥˧]	[ẽ˦ / eŋ˦]	[ẽ˦ / eŋ˨]	[ẽ˧˦˥ / eŋ˧˦˥]
𖬂𖬲	𖬂	𖬂𖬰	𖬂𖬶	𖬃	𖬃𖬰	𖬃𖬲
Kib	Kim	Kij	Kiv	Ki	Kis	Kig
[i˥]	[iˀ˩]	[i˦˥]	[i˥˧]	[i˦]	[i˨]	[i˧˦˥]
𖬄𖬰	𖬄	𖬄𖬶	𖬄𖬲	𖬅	𖬅𖬰	𖬅𖬲
Kaub	Kaum	Kauj	Kauv	Kau	Kaus	Kaug
[au̯˥]	[au̯ˀ˩]	[au̯˦˥]	[au̯˥˧]	[au̯˦]	[au̯˨]	[au̯˧˦˥]
𖬆𖬰	𖬆	𖬆𖬶	𖬆𖬲	𖬇	𖬇𖬰	𖬇𖬲
Kub	Kum	Kuj	Kuv	Ku	Kus	Kug
[u˥]	[uˀ˩]	[u˦˥]	[u˥˧]	[u˦]	[u˨]	[u˧˦˥]
𖬈𖬰	𖬈	𖬈𖬲	𖬉	𖬉𖬰	𖬉𖬲	𖬉𖬶
Keb	Kem	Kej	Kev	Ke	Kes	Keg
[e˥]	[eˀ˩]	[e˦˥]	[e˥˧]	[e˦]	[e˨]	[e˧˦˥]
𖬊𖬰	𖬊	𖬊𖬶	𖬊𖬲	𖬋	𖬋𖬰	𖬋𖬲
Kaib	Kaim	Kaij	Kaiv	Kai	Kais	Kaig
[ai̪˥]	[ai̪ˀ˩]	[ai̪˦˥]	[ai̪˥˧]	[ai̪˦]	[ai̪˨]	[ai̪˧˦˥]
𖬌	𖬌𖬰	𖬌𖬲	𖬍𖬰	𖬍	𖬍𖬲	𖬍𖬶
Koob	Koom	Kooj	Koov	Koo	Koos	Koog
[ɔ̃˥ / ɔŋ˥]	[ɔ̃ˀ˩ / ɔŋˀ˩]	[ɔ̃˦˥ / ɔŋ˦˥]	[ɔ̃˥˧ / ɔŋ˥˧]	[ɔ̃˦ / ɔŋ˦]	[ɔ̃˨ / ɔŋ˨]	[ɔ̃˧˦˥ / ɔŋ˧˦˥]
𖬎	𖬎𖬰	𖬎𖬲	𖬎𖬶	𖬏	𖬏𖬰	𖬏𖬲
Kawb	Kawm	Kawj	Kawv	Kaw	Kaws	Kawg
[aɨ̪˥]	[aɨ̪ˀ˩]	[aɨ̪˦˥]	[aɨ̪˥˧]	[aɨ̪˦]	[aɨ̪˨]	[aɨ̪˧˦˥]
𖬐𖬶	𖬐	𖬐𖬰	𖬐𖬲	𖬑𖬰	𖬑𖬲	𖬑𖬶
Kuab	Kuam	Kuaj	Kuav	Kua	Kuas	Kuag
[u̯ə˥]	[u̯əˀ˩]	[u̯ə˦˥]	[u̯ə˥˧]	[u̯ə˦]	[u̯ə˨]	[u̯ə˧˦˥]
𖬒𖬰	𖬒	𖬒𖬲	𖬒𖬶	𖬓𖬰	𖬓𖬲	𖬓
Kob	Kom	Koj	Kov	Ko	Kos	Kog
[ɔ˥]	[ɔˀ˩]	[ɔ˦˥]	[ɔ˥˧]	[ɔ˦]	[ɔ˨]	[ɔ˧˦˥]
𖬔	𖬔𖬰	𖬔𖬶	𖬔𖬲	𖬕	𖬕𖬰	𖬕𖬲
Kiab	Kiam	Kiaj	Kiav	Kia	Kias	Kiag
[i̯ə˥]	[i̯əˀ˩]	[i̯ə˦˥]	[i̯ə˥˧]	[i̯ə˦]	[i̯ə˨]	[i̯ə˧˦˥]
𖬖𖬲	𖬖	𖬖𖬰	𖬗	𖬗𖬰	𖬗𖬲	𖬗𖬶
Kab	Kam	Kaj	Kav	Ka	Kas	Kag
[a˥]	[aˀ˩]	[a˦˥]	[a˥˧]	[a˦]	[a˨]	[a˧˦˥]
𖬚𖬲	𖬚	𖬚𖬰	𖬛	𖬛𖬰	𖬛𖬲	𖬛𖬶
Kaab	Kaam	Kaaj	Kaav	Kaa	Kaas	Kaag
[aː˥]	[aːˀ˩]	[aː˦˥]	[aː˥˧]	[aː˦]	[aː˨]	[aː˧˦˥]
𖬘𖬰	𖬘	𖬘𖬲	𖬙	𖬙𖬰	𖬙𖬲	𖬙𖬶
Kwb	Kwm	Kwj	Kwv	Kw	Kws	Kwg
[ɨ˥]	[ɨˀ˩]	[ɨ˦˥]	[ɨ˥˧]	[ɨ˦]	[ɨ˨]	[ɨ˧˦˥]

The vowel systems of Hmong Daw and Mong Njua are as shown in the following charts. Phonemes particular to each dialect are color-coded respectively:

Hmong Daw and Mong Njua vowels
	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	i ⟨i⟩ 𖬂, 𖬃		ɨ ⟨w⟩ 𖬘, 𖬙		u ⟨u⟩ 𖬆, 𖬇
Mid	e ⟨e⟩ 𖬈, 𖬉	ẽ~eŋ ⟨ee⟩ 𖬀, 𖬁
Open			a ⟨a⟩ 𖬖, 𖬗	ã~aŋ ⟨aa⟩ 𖬚, 𖬛	ɒ ⟨o⟩ 𖬒, 𖬓	ɒ̃~ɒŋ ⟨oo⟩ 𖬌, 𖬍

Diphthongs
	Closing	Centering
Close component is front	ai ⟨ai⟩ 𖬊, 𖬋	iə ⟨ia⟩ 𖬔, 𖬕
Close component is central	aɨ ⟨aw⟩ 𖬎, 𖬏
Close component is back	au ⟨au⟩ 𖬄, 𖬅	uə ⟨ua⟩ 𖬐, 𖬑

Consonants

𖬜	𖬜𖬰	𖬜𖬵	𖬝	𖬝𖬰	𖬝𖬵
Vau	Nrau	Fau	Ntsau	Tsau	Phau
[v-]	[ɳʈ-]	[f-]	[ntʃ-]	[tʃ-]	[pʰ-]
𖬢	𖬢𖬰	𖬢𖬵	𖬞	𖬞𖬰	𖬞𖬵
Nkau	Ntxau	Rhau	Lau	Dau	Dhau
[ŋk-]	[ⁿdz-]	[tʰ-]	[l-]	[ʔd-]	[ʔdʰ-]
𖬡	𖬡𖬰	𖬡𖬵	𖬩	𖬩𖬰	𖬩𖬵
Rau	Nphau	Nplhau	Hnau	Khau	Ntau
[t-]	[mpʰ-]	[mpʰl-]	[ʰn̥-]	[kʰ-]	[nt-]
𖬬	𖬬𖬰	𖬬𖬵	𖬠	𖬠𖬰	𖬠𖬵
Nau	Nqau	Nqhau	Mlau	Hmlau	Gau
[n-]	[nq-]	[nqʰ-]	[ml-]	[ʰml-]	[ŋ-]
𖬮	𖬮𖬰	𖬮𖬵	𖬯	𖬯𖬰	𖬯𖬵
Xau	Au	Nyau	Cau	Ntshau	Txau
[s-]	[au]	[ɲ-]	[c-]	[ntʃʰ-]	[ts-]
𖬥	𖬥𖬰	𖬥𖬵	𖬤	𖬤𖬰	𖬤𖬵
Hlau	Zau	Ntxhau	Yau	Ncau	Sau
[ʰl-]	[ʒ-]	[ⁿtsʰ-]	[j-]	[ɲc-]	[ʃ-]
𖬦	𖬦𖬰	𖬦𖬵	𖬟	𖬟𖬰	𖬟𖬵
Mau	Txhau	Qau	Hau	Thau	Plau
[m-]	[tsʰ-]	[q-]	[h-]	[tʰ-]	[pl-]
𖬪	𖬪𖬰	𖬪𖬵	𖬫	𖬫𖬰	𖬫𖬵
Plhau	Tshau	Pau	Nthau	Nplau	Nkhau
[pʰl-]	[tʃʰ-]	[p-]	[ⁿtʰ-]	[ᵐbˡ-]	[ᵑkʰ-]
𖬧	𖬧𖬰	𖬧𖬵	𖬨	𖬨𖬰	𖬨𖬵
Chau	Xyau	Tau	Nchau	Nrhau	Npau
[cʰ-]	[ç-]	[t-]	[ɲcʰ-]	[ɳtʰ-]	[ᵐb-]
𖬣	𖬣𖬰	𖬣𖬵	𖬭	𖬭𖬰	𖬭𖬵
Qhau	Hnyau	Hmau	Dlau	Ndlau	Ndlhau
[qʰ-]	[ʰɲ-]	[ʰm-]	[dˡ-]	[ntˡ-]	[ndʰl-]

Hmong makes a number of phonemic contrasts unfamiliar to English speakers. All non-glottal stops and affricates distinguish aspirated and unaspirated forms, most also prenasalization independently of this. The consonant inventory of Hmong is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to Hmong Daw and Mong Njua are color-coded respectively.)

Hmong Daw and Mong Njua consonants
		Bilabial		Labio- dental	Dental		Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
		plain	lateral^*	Labio- dental	plain	lateral^*	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Nasal	voiceless	m̥ ⟨hm⟩ 𖬣𖬵	(m̥ˡ) ⟨hml⟩ 𖬠𖬰		n̥ ⟨hn⟩ 𖬩			ʰɲ ⟨hny⟩ 𖬣𖬰
Nasal	voiced	m ⟨m⟩ 𖬦	(mˡ) ⟨ml⟩ 𖬠		n ⟨n⟩ 𖬬			ɲ ⟨ny⟩ 𖬮𖬵
Plosive	tenuis	p ⟨p⟩ 𖬪𖬵	(pˡ) ⟨pl⟩ 𖬟𖬵		t ⟨t⟩ 𖬧𖬵	(ntˡ) ⟨Ndl⟩ 𖬭𖬰	ʈ ⟨r⟩ 𖬡	c ⟨c⟩ 𖬯	k ⟨k⟩	q ⟨q⟩ 𖬦𖬵	ʔ ⟨au⟩ 𖬮𖬰
	aspirated	pʰ ⟨ph⟩ 𖬝𖬵	(pˡʰ) ⟨plh⟩ 𖬪		tʰ ⟨th⟩ 𖬟𖬰	(ndʰl) ⟨Ndlh⟩ 𖬭𖬵	ʈʰ ⟨rh⟩ 𖬢𖬵	cʰ ⟨ch⟩ 𖬧	kʰ ⟨kh⟩ 𖬩𖬰	qʰ ⟨qh⟩ 𖬣
	voiced				d ⟨d⟩ 𖬞𖬰
	murmured				dʱ ⟨dh⟩ 𖬞𖬵
	prenasalized^**	ᵐb ⟨np⟩ 𖬨𖬵	(ᵐbˡ) ⟨npl⟩ 𖬫𖬰		ⁿd ⟨nt⟩ 𖬩𖬵	(dˡ) ⟨Dl⟩ 𖬭	ᶯɖ ⟨nr⟩ 𖬜𖬰	ᶮɟ ⟨nc⟩ 𖬤𖬰	ᵑɡ ⟨nk⟩ 𖬢	ᶰɢ ⟨nq⟩ 𖬬𖬰
	prenasalized^**	ᵐpʰ ⟨nph⟩ 𖬡𖬰	(ᵐpˡʰ) ⟨nplh⟩ 𖬡𖬵		ⁿtʰ ⟨nth⟩ 𖬫	(dʰl) ⟨Dlh⟩ 𖬭𖬴	ᶯʈʰ ⟨nrh⟩ 𖬨𖬰	ᶮcʰ ⟨nch⟩ 𖬨	ᵑkʰ ⟨nkh⟩ 𖬫𖬵	ᶰqʰ ⟨nqh⟩ 𖬬𖬵
Affricate	tenuis				ts ⟨tx⟩ 𖬯𖬵		tʂ ⟨ts⟩ 𖬝𖬰
	aspirated				tsʰ ⟨txh⟩ 𖬦𖬰		tʂʰ ⟨tsh⟩ 𖬪𖬰
	prenasalized^**				ⁿdz ⟨ntx⟩ 𖬢𖬰		ᶯdʐ ⟨nts⟩ 𖬝
	prenasalized^**				ⁿtsʰ ⟨ntxh⟩ 𖬥𖬵		ᶯtʂʰ ⟨ntsh⟩ 𖬯𖬰
Continuant	voiceless			f ⟨f⟩ 𖬜𖬵	s ⟨x⟩ 𖬮	l̥ ⟨hl⟩ 𖬥	ʂ ⟨s⟩ 𖬤𖬵	ç ⟨xy⟩ 𖬧𖬰			h ⟨h⟩ 𖬟
Continuant	voiced			v ⟨v⟩ 𖬜		l ⟨l⟩ 𖬞	ʐ ⟨z⟩ 𖬥𖬰	ʝ ⟨y⟩ 𖬤

Diacritical marks

The Pahawh Hmong diacritics were devised by Shong Lue Yang in isolation, and have no genetic relation to similar-looking punctuation in the European tradition (DOT ABOVE, DIAERESIS, MACRON). Since it can also typically take shapes that are different from the typical shapes that European punctuation has, it would be inappropriate to attempt to unify Pahawh Hmong diacritics with characters in the General Punctuation mark. Combining diacritics are found at 16B30..16B36 and function in the usual way. Note that 16B34 and 16B35 could be composed (16B32 + 16B30 and 16B32 + 16B31 respectively). Such an encoding is not recommended (because decomposition would break the one-to-four character convention for representing Hmong syllables) and no canonical decomposition is given in the character properties.

Hmong Tone Markers	𖬰	𖬱	𖬲	𖬳	𖬴	𖬵	𖬶
Pahawh / Hmong RPA	𖬂𖬯 𖬆𖬰𖬧𖬵 / Cim Tub	𖬂𖬯 𖬓𖬰𖬮𖬰 / Cim So	𖬂𖬯 𖬉𖬲 / Cim Kes	𖬂𖬯 𖬗𖬩𖬰 / Cim Khav	𖬂𖬯 𖬐𖬤𖬵 / Cim Suam	𖬂𖬯 𖬒𖬟 / Cim Hom	𖬂𖬯 𖬄𖬧𖬵 / Cim Taum

Grammar

Pronouns

The Hmong pronominal system distinguishes between three grammatical persons and three numbers – singular, dual, and plural. They are not marked for case, that is, the same word is used to translate both "I" and "me", "she" and "her", and so forth. These are the personal pronouns of Hmong Daw and Mong Njua (in Pahawh Hmong and Hmong RPA):

Person	Pahawh Hmong	Hmong RPA	IPA	Meaning	Examples in Pahawh / RPA / English
First	𖬆𖬲	Kuv	ku˧˦	I/me (formal)	𖬆𖬲 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / Kuv yog Hmoob; I am Hmong
	𖬘𖬰𖬮𖬰 / 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰	Wb / Ib	ʔɨ˥	we/us (formal/dual)	𖬘𖬰𖬮𖬰 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵, Wb yog Hmoob / Ib yog Hmoob; We are Hmong
	𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵	Peb	pe˥	we/us (formal)	𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / Peb yog Hmoob; We are Hmong
Second	𖬒𖬲	Koj	kɒ˥˧	you (formal)	𖬒𖬲 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / Koj yog Hmoob; You are Hmong
	𖬈𖬰𖬬 / 𖬈𖬰𖬦	Neb / Meb	ne˥	you two/your (second person dual)	𖬈𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / 𖬈𖬰𖬦 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵, Neb yog Hmoob / Meb yog Hmoob; You two are Hmong
	𖬈𖬲𖬬 / 𖬈𖬲𖬦	Nej / Mej	ne˥˧	you/your (three or more: second person plural)	𖬈𖬲𖬬 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / 𖬈𖬲𖬦 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵, Nej yog Hmoob / Mej yog Hmoob; You are Hmong
Third	𖬙𖬲𖬬	Nws	nɨ˩	he/she/it/him/her/his/its (formal)	𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵, Nws yog Hmoob; He/She/Her [brother, sister, etc.]/His [brother, sister, etc.]/it[s] is Hmong
	𖬎𖬱𖬢 / 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵	Nkawd / Ob tug	ⁿdaɨ˨˩˧	they/them two (dual)	𖬎𖬱𖬢 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵, Nkawd yog Hmoob, Ob tug yog Hmoob; They/Them two are Hmong
	𖬎𖬶𖬞 / 𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵	Lawv / Puab	laɨ̯˧˦	they/them, others	𖬎𖬶𖬞 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / 𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬣𖬵, Lawv yog Hmoob / Puab yog Hmoob; They are Hmong

Logographs

Hmong Symbols	Pahawh / Hmong RPA	Meaning
𖭣	𖬓𖬲𖬜 𖬆𖬰𖬞 / Vos Lub	A classifier
𖭤	𖬍𖬰𖬧𖬰 / Xyoo	Year
𖭥	𖬃𖬥 / Hli	Month
𖭦	𖬃𖬥 / Hli	3-Stage Hli
𖭧	𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬖𖬰𖬟𖬰 / Zwj Thaj	Date
𖭨	𖬆𖬰𖬩 / Hnub	Day
𖭩	𖬃𖬲𖬬𖬰 / Nqig	Waning Moon
𖭪	𖬔𖬮 / Xiab	Waxing Moon
𖭫	𖬆𖬶𖬩𖬵 / Ntuj	Season
𖭬	𖬗𖬮𖬰 / Av	Earth
𖭭	𖬀𖬰𖬦𖬰 𖬀𖬲𖬯 / Txheej Ceev	Urgent
𖭮	𖬀𖬰𖬦 𖬀𖬶𖬝𖬰 / Meej Tseeb	Facts
𖭯	𖬧𖬵 / Tau	Received
𖭰	𖬓𖬲𖬞 / Los	Come
𖭱	𖬇𖬰𖬦 / Mus	Go
𖭲	𖬂𖬯 𖬋𖬰𖬟 𖬇𖬰𖬞 𖬓𖬩𖬵 / Cim Hais Lus Ntog	Smooth
𖭳	𖬂𖬯 𖬐𖬯 𖬌𖬲𖬪𖬰 / Cim Cuam Tshooj	Fraction
𖭴	𖬂𖬯 𖬙𖬯𖬵 / Cim Txwv	Do not Open
𖭵	𖬂𖬯 𖬙𖬯𖬵 𖬙𖬧 / Cim Txwv Chwv	Do not Touch
𖭶	𖬂𖬯 𖬆𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬎𖬞𖬰 / Cim Pub Dawb	Give Freely
𖭷	𖬂𖬯 𖬉𖬲𖬜𖬰 𖬓𖬲𖬧𖬵 / Cim Nres Tos	Stop

Numeral system

Pahawh Hmong has a distinct numeral system with values for 0–9, along with a set of symbols for positional notation. The positional notation system is still taught, and reflects the spoken language, but is not used for arithmetic calculation. Larger numbers can thus be written two ways, using just 0–9 with place value being understood or by using the positional notation characters. For example, the number 57023 would be commonly be written as 𖭕𖭗𖭐𖭒𖭓 (five-seven-zero-two-three), but it can also be written 𖭕𖭗𖭜𖭐𖭒𖭛𖭓 (fifty-seven thousand-twenty-three).^[6]

Arabic Numerals	Hmong Numeral	Pahawh Hmong	Hmong RPA
0	𖭐	𖬊𖬲𖬢𖬰	Ntxaiv
1	𖭑	𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰	Ib
2	𖭒	𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰	Ob
3	𖭓	𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵	Peb
4	𖭔	𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵	Plaub
5	𖭕	𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰	Tsib
6	𖭖	𖬡	Rau
7	𖭗	𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰	Xya
8	𖭘	𖬂𖬤	Yim
9	𖭙	𖬐𖬰𖬯	Cuaj
10	𖭑𖭐	𖬄	Kaum

Positional notation

Numbers	English Cardinal Numbers	Pahawh Hmong	Hmong RPA	Pahawh Symbols
0-9	Ones	𖬑𖬰𖬯	Cua	𖭐
10-90	Tens	𖬄𖬯	Caum	𖭛
100-900	Hundreds	𖬑𖬰𖬪𖬵	Pua	𖭜
1,000-9,000	Thousands	𖬔𖬦𖬰	Txhiab	𖭜𖭐
10,000-90,000	Ten Thousands	𖬖𖬜	Vam	𖭝
10⁵	Hundreds Thousands	𖬐𖬶𖬝	Ntsuab	𖭝𖭐
10⁶	Millions	𖬌𖬡	Roob	𖭞
10⁷	Ten Millions	𖬙𖬰𖬧𖬵	Tw	𖭞𖭐
10⁸	Hundred Millions	𖬀𖬲𖬬	Neev	𖭟
10⁹	Billions	𖬏𖬧𖬵	Taw	𖭟𖭐
10¹⁰	Ten Billions	𖬐𖬲𖬡	Ruav	𖭠
10¹¹	Hundred Billions	𖬈	Kem	𖭠𖭐
10¹²	Trillions	𖬗𖬧𖬵	Tas	𖭡

Punctuation marks

Symbols	Name		Meaning
Symbols	Pahawh Hmong	Hmong RPA	Meaning
𖬷	𖬓𖬲𖬜 𖬒𖬟𖬰	Vos Thom	Question Mark
𖬸	𖬓𖬲𖬜 𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬯	Vos Tshab Ceeb	Exclamation Mark
𖬹	𖬂𖬯 𖬀𖬧	Cim Cheem	Comma
𖬺	𖬓𖬲𖬜 𖬔𖬟𖬰	Vos Thiab	Ampersand
𖬻	𖬓𖬲𖬜 𖬀𖬜𖬵	Vos Feem	Percent Sign
𖭄	𖬅𖬰𖬮	Xaus	Indicates completion of a section
𖭅	𖬂𖬯 𖬒𖬶𖬝𖬰 𖬓𖬡	Cim Tsov Rog	indicates military topics
𖭀	𖬓𖬲𖬜 𖬀𖬲𖬤𖬵	Vos Seev	Indicates chanting intonation
𖭁	𖬀𖬰𖬦 𖬐𖬶𖬤𖬵	Meej Suab	Indicates foreign pronunciation
𖭂	𖬓𖬲𖬜 𖬑𖬜𖬰	Vos Nrua	Reduplication
𖭃	𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬖𖬤	Ib Yam	Replication, Ditto Mark

Non-script-specific punctuation marks are also used including the question mark (?), left parentheses, right parentheses, period (.), comma (,), semicolon (;), colon (:), less than sign (<), greater than sign (>), and dash (–).^[7]

Arithmetic operators

Symbol	Image	Name		Meaning
Symbol	Image	Pahawh Hmong	Hmong RPA	Meaning
𖬼	PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYEEM NTXIV	𖬀𖬧𖬰 𖬂𖬶𖬢𖬰	Xyeem Ntxiv	Plus Sign
𖬽	PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYEEM RHO	𖬀𖬧𖬰 𖬓𖬰𖬢𖬵	Xyeem Rho	Minus Sign
𖬾	PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYEEM TOV	𖬀𖬧𖬰 𖬒𖬶𖬧𖬵	Xyeem Tov	Multiplication Sign
𖬿	PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYEEM FAIB	𖬀𖬧𖬰 𖬊𖬰𖬜𖬵	Xyeem Faib	Division Sign

Samples

Wood Carving Pahawh
Arithmetical symbols in a 2nd Stage Reduced Version maths book
Logographs and symbols

Origin

Because Shong was illiterate, it is sometimes assumed that he invented Pahawh ex nihilo. However, Shong was acutely aware of writing and of the advantages that it provided; indeed, that was the basis of his messianic movement.^{[citation needed]} It would appear that existing scripts provided his inspiration, even if he did not fully understand them, much as the Roman alphabet inspired the illiterate Sequoyah when he invented the Cherokee script, in a process called trans-cultural diffusion.^{[citation needed]} Not only do the forms of the majority of the letters in the oldest stage of Pahawh closely resemble the letters of the local Lao alphabet and missionary scripts such as Pollard and Fraser, though they are independent in sound value (much like the relationship between Roman and Cherokee), but the appearance of vowel and tone diacritics in those scripts, which would appear nearly random to the illiterate, may explain the idiosyncratic use of diacritics in early Pahawh. Nevertheless, even if the graphic forms of Pahawh letters derive from other scripts, much of the typology of the script, with its primary rimes and secondary onsets, would appear to be Shong's invention.

The later stages of Pahawh became typologically more like Lao and the Roman alphabet, suggesting that perhaps they influenced its evolution. However, even from the start, Pahawh is "fascinatingly similar [...] and fascinatingly different" from the Lao alphabet (Smalley et al. 1990:90). For example, it resembles an abugida such as Lao where the order of writing does not reflect the order of speech, but with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed. There is an inherent vowel, as in Lao, though only on one tone, but also an inherent consonant. In Lao, tone depends on the consonant; it is modified with diacritics, but the patterns of modification are complex. In early Pahawh, tone depends on the rime and is modified with irregular diacritics. Starting with stage 2, there are two tone-classes of rime, just as in Lao there are two tone-classes of consonant.

Nearly all other scripts invented by illiterates are syllabaries like Cherokee.^{[citation needed]} However, to represent Hmong as a syllabary, Pahawh would have needed 60×91 = 5460 letters. By breaking each syllable in two in the fashion of Chinese phonetics, Shong was able to write Hmong, in his original version, with a mere 60+91 = 151 letters.

Unicode

The Pahawh Hmong alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2014 with the release of version 7.0.

The Unicode block for Pahawh Hmong is U+16B00–U+16B8F:

Pahawh Hmong^[1]^[2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
U+16B0x	𖬀	𖬁	𖬂	𖬃	𖬄	𖬅	𖬆	𖬇	𖬈	𖬉	𖬊	𖬋	𖬌	𖬍	𖬎	𖬏
U+16B1x	𖬐	𖬑	𖬒	𖬓	𖬔	𖬕	𖬖	𖬗	𖬘	𖬙	𖬚	𖬛	𖬜	𖬝	𖬞	𖬟
U+16B2x	𖬠	𖬡	𖬢	𖬣	𖬤	𖬥	𖬦	𖬧	𖬨	𖬩	𖬪	𖬫	𖬬	𖬭	𖬮	𖬯
U+16B3x	𖬰	𖬱	𖬲	𖬳	𖬴	𖬵	𖬶	𖬷	𖬸	𖬹	𖬺	𖬻	𖬼	𖬽	𖬾	𖬿
U+16B4x	𖭀	𖭁	𖭂	𖭃	𖭄	𖭅
U+16B5x	𖭐	𖭑	𖭒	𖭓	𖭔	𖭕	𖭖	𖭗	𖭘	𖭙		𖭛	𖭜	𖭝	𖭞	𖭟
U+16B6x	𖭠	𖭡		𖭣	𖭤	𖭥	𖭦	𖭧	𖭨	𖭩	𖭪	𖭫	𖭬	𖭭	𖭮	𖭯
U+16B7x	𖭰	𖭱	𖭲	𖭳	𖭴	𖭵	𖭶	𖭷						𖭽	𖭾	𖭿
U+16B8x	𖮀	𖮁	𖮂	𖮃	𖮄	𖮅	𖮆	𖮇	𖮈	𖮉	𖮊	𖮋	𖮌	𖮍	𖮎	𖮏
Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 16.0 2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Fonts

For now, Pahawh Hmong Unicode is only supported by:

Noto Sans Pahawh Hmong (direct download link), a font made by Google
Pahawh Unicode (direct download link), Google Drive
Pahawh Hmong (Unicode) fonts & Non-Unicode Fonts

Keyboard

Pahawh Hmong Keyboard (Unicode) for Keyman

Android and IPhone, made by Hmoob Vaj Loog Vooj Vuab and other generous donors
Keyman now supports Pahawh Hmong (Basic) keyboard
Windows, macOS, Linux, Web, iPhone and iPad, Android, Mobile web, made possible by Lorna Evans, the author

References

^ The only final consonant is [ŋ]. However, this is sometimes analyzed as vowel nasalization: oo, ee, aa /ɔŋ, ɛŋ, aŋ/ or /ɔ̃, ɛ̃, ã/. Thus Pahawh can be considered an alphabet where both consonants and vowels may be complex, much like x [ks] and i [aɪ] in English.
^ Coincidentally, RPA also has an inherent consonant which is not written, glottal stop, along with a null-consonant diacritic, the apostrophe: ai /ʔāi/, ’ai /āi/. Few Hmong words are vowel initial, so writing the absence of a consonant with an apostrophe is more economical than writing glottal stop with an apostrophe.
^ Punctuation was introduced in 1969 when Chia Koua Vang, who was literate in RPA, wrote to Shong in prison asking him what to put at the ends of sentences. Neither Shong nor any of his other disciples were literate in any other script at this point, so presumably someone taught him punctuation there. (Smalley et al. 1990:76–77)
^ ^a ^b Fadiman, Anne. "Note on Hmong Orthography, Pronunciation, and Quotations." The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 1997. 291.
^ Smalley, William Allen, Chia Koua Vang (Txiaj Kuam Vaj 𖬔𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬐𖬰 𖬖𖬲𖬜 ), and Gnia Yee Yang (Nyiaj Yig Yaj 𖬔𖬲𖬮𖬵 𖬃𖬶𖬤 𖬖𖬲𖬤 ). Mother of Writing: The Origin and Development of a Hmong Messianic Script. University of Chicago Press, March 23, 1990. 10. Retrieved from Google Books on March 23, 2012. ISBN 0226762866, 9780226762869.
^ Smalley, Chia & Gnia 1990, pp. 79–82.
^ Everson, Michael (2012-01-20). "N4175: Final proposal to encode the Pahawh Hmong script in the UCS" (PDF). Working Group Document, ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2.

Ratliff, Martha (1996). "The Pahawh Hmong Script". In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. New York, NY: University of Oxford Press. pp. 619–624.
Rogers, Henry (2005). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 260–262.
Smalley, William Allen; Chia, Koua Vang ( ; Txiaj Kuam Vaj); and Gnia, Yee Yang ( ; Nyiaj Yig Yaj) (1990). Mother of Writing: The Origin and Development of a Hmong Messianic Script. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

External links

Omniglot Pahawh Hmong Alphabet
https://web.archive.org/web/20221028031332/http://pahawh.org/ The Pahawh Hmong Platform (old website)
https://wiki.liamscode.net/unicode/block.php?n=Pahawh%20Hmong Pahawh Hmong Unicode Block
https://pahawh.com/index.html Pahawh Hmong Platform (new website)
RPA to Hmong IPA & Hmong RPA to Pahawh Hmong converter Downloadable (Credited to Chao Moua & AutoHotKey)

[1] The only final consonant is [ŋ]. However, this is sometimes analyzed as vowel nasalization: oo, ee, aa /ɔŋ, ɛŋ, aŋ/ or /ɔ̃, ɛ̃, ã/. Thus Pahawh can be considered an alphabet where both consonants and vowels may be complex, much like x [ks] and i [aɪ] in English.

[2] Coincidentally, RPA also has an inherent consonant which is not written, glottal stop, along with a null-consonant diacritic, the apostrophe: ai /ʔāi/, ’ai /āi/. Few Hmong words are vowel initial, so writing the absence of a consonant with an apostrophe is more economical than writing glottal stop with an apostrophe.

[3] Punctuation was introduced in 1969 when Chia Koua Vang, who was literate in RPA, wrote to Shong in prison asking him what to put at the ends of sentences. Neither Shong nor any of his other disciples were literate in any other script at this point, so presumably someone taught him punctuation there. (Smalley et al. 1990:76–77)

[Fadiman291-4] Fadiman, Anne. "Note on Hmong Orthography, Pronunciation, and Quotations." The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 1997. 291.

[5] Smalley, William Allen, Chia Koua Vang (Txiaj Kuam Vaj 𖬔𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬐𖬰 𖬖𖬲𖬜 ), and Gnia Yee Yang (Nyiaj Yig Yaj 𖬔𖬲𖬮𖬵 𖬃𖬶𖬤 𖬖𖬲𖬤 ). Mother of Writing: The Origin and Development of a Hmong Messianic Script. University of Chicago Press, March 23, 1990. 10. Retrieved from Google Books on March 23, 2012. ISBN 0226762866, 9780226762869.

[FOOTNOTESmalleyChiaGnia199079–82-6] Smalley, Chia & Gnia 1990, pp. 79–82.

[n4175-7] Everson, Michael (2012-01-20). "N4175: Final proposal to encode the Pahawh Hmong script in the UCS" (PDF). Working Group Document, ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2.

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