The Pakawan languages were a small language family spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas. Some Pakawan languages are today sleeping.[1] While others are engage in revitalizations and thus awakening.
| Pakawan | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Rio Grande Valley |
| Linguistic classification | Hokan ?
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | None |
Classification
editFive clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).
The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".[2]
Common vocabulary
editThe following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):
| Core Pakawan | Peripheral Pakawan | tentative reconstruction[2] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coahuilteco[3] | Comecrudo[3] | Cotoname[3] | Karankawa[3] | Tónkawa[4] | |
| axtē 'two' |
ale-kueten 'two' |
haíkia 'two' |
#al-, #axte 'two' | ||
| '' |
#ali 'ear' | ||||
| uxualʼ 'heaven' |
apel 'sky, heaven, clouds' |
#apel' 'sky' | |||
| apam 'water' |
áx̣ 'water' |
klai, komkom 'water' |
#axə 'juice, water' | ||
| tciene 'salt' |
dá-än | dem, ketac | #dem 'salt' | ||
| xāi 'to be extinguished, to come to an end' |
kai 'to eat' |
aknámas 'to eat' |
#kai 'to eat up, consume' | ||
| axām 'not' |
kam 'no' |
kóṃ 'not' |
#kam 'no(t)' | ||
| hām 'to eat' |
kam 'to eat' |
hahame, xaxame 'to eat; food' |
#kam 'to eat, drink' | ||
| '' |
#kamkam 'body of water' | ||||
| xasal 'heart' |
kayasel 'heart' |
láhama 'heart' |
#kayasel 'heart' | ||
| pe=kĕwek 'low (of water)' |
xuăxe 'low (of water)' |
#k(a)waka 'low (of water)' | |||
| kemen 'vein' |
kemma 'bow' |
#keme(n) 'sinew, vein' | |||
| pa=kna(x) 'high, big' |
kenex 'good' |
#kenex 'good, big' | |||
| '' |
ō' 'sun' |
klos, dóowal 'sun' |
#ketekawi 'sun, star' | ||
| talōm 'fire' |
klewem, klewen, len |
mánĕx 'fire' |
kwátci, kwoilesem 'fire' |
#klewem 'fire' | |
| '' |
kĕnám | kanín | #knem 'breast' | ||
| kuas | kial | sä'x | #kual 'blood' | ||
| kuan 'to go' |
kio; kie 'to go'; 'to come' |
awóyo! 'go over there!' |
#kuV- 'to go, come' | ||
| k’āu 'husband' |
gnax, na 'man' |
xuaináxe 'man' |
#kwainaxə 'man' | ||
| '' |
kuak 'reed, cane; arrow' |
ka-u, kau 'reed; arrow' |
#kwak 'reed' | ||
| pe=kla 'to suck' |
huäxle 'to suck' |
#kwa(x/k?)la 'to suck' | |||
| kʼāu 'to marry' |
kuau, kwai 'married' |
#k'aw 'to marry' | |||
| '' |
wax 'belly' |
kox 'belly' |
#k'wax 'belly' | ||
| tšum 'night, evening' |
lesum, lesom 'evening' |
#lesum 'evening' | |||
| '' |
#lel 'buttock, leg' | ||||
| '' |
katówan | #lot 'arm' | |||
| '' |
#makə 'to give' | ||||
| masõ 'to give up, abandon, desert, leave' |
mel, pa=mesai 'to fall' |
#maɬ- 'to fall' | |||
| māux 'hand' |
mapi 'hand' |
miapa 'wing' |
#mapi 'hand' | ||
| pa=msol, pa=msul 'red' |
msae 'red' |
#msa'ol 'red' | |||
| el-pau 'to kneel down, sink or sit down' |
pawe 'to sit' |
#pawə 'to sit' | |||
| pilʼ 'one' |
pe-kueten 'one' |
#pil' 'one' | |||
| ānua 'moon' |
kan 'moon' |
#q'an 'moon' | |||
| saayēx 'to be wanting' |
#sayex 'to want' | ||||
| sel 'straw' |
suau 'grass, tobacco; to smoke' |
#sel 'grass' | |||
| pa=kahuai, -kawai 'to write, paint; paper' |
thawe 'painted (on body, face)' |
#tkawai 'paint' | |||
| tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan 'what' |
tete 'how, what, why' |
*tit 'what' |
#t'ete- 'what' | ||
| tʼil 'day' |
al 'sun' |
o 'sun' |
#t'al 'sun' | ||
| xop 'far, distant' |
huanpa, xuanpa 'far' |
#xwanpa 'far' | |||
| '' |
yá-ĕx | #ya'ex 'nose' | |||
| yēwal 'to bewitch' |
yamel, yamis 'devil' |
#yameɬ 'evil spirit' | |||
| na- 'my, me' |
na 'I' |
na 'I' |
|||
| mai- '2PS subject prefix' |
emnã 'you (sg.)' |
*men 'you (sg.)' |
|||
| pamawau |
|||||
| la-ak 'goose' |
krak 'goose' |
||||
| kol 'crane' |
karakor 'crane' |
||||
| ketuau 'dog' |
kowá-u 'dog' |
||||
| kiextuén 'rabbit' |
kiáx̣nem 'rabbit' |
||||
| pa=kwessom 'orphan' |
kuwosam 'small, little; boy, girl' |
||||
| malāux 'male sexual organs' |
melkuai 'female sexual organs' |
||||
| xūm 'to die' |
kamau 'to kill' |
wátxuka 'to kill' |
|||
| tzin 'I' |
yen 'I' |
||||
| tzōtz 'chest' |
yeso knem 'to nurse' |
||||
| *tšei 'to hear' |
ye 'to hear' |
||||
| tilʼ 'posterior, anus' |
alel; (al)el 'leg'; 'buttocks, backsides, bottom' |
||||
| tām 'woman's breast' |
dom 'breast' |
||||
| mās 'to look, observe' |
max, ma, mahe 'to see' |
||||
| kuāx(ai) 'to suffer' |
kayau 'ache, sore' |
||||
The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:
- Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
- Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
- Syncope of
- Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low [water]', 'to kneel'.
- /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low [water]', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
- /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
- s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
- Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear
Lexical comparison
editThe Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940).[5] The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964),[6] which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960).[7] Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948),[8] and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949).[9]
| language | head | hair | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | hand | foot | breast | meat | blood | bone | person | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comecrudo | eláx | eláx, emól | u-i | alí | yáx̣ | í | expén | xál | mapí | emí, lemí | kném | ewé, kai | kiál | ehûei, klemí, xí | estók | lekaú |
| Cotoname | makuát | makuát | arókwan | yá-ĕx | ayésim | kĕnám | kemás | sä'x | xuaináxe | |||||||
| Karankawa | en-okea | ekia aikui | em-ikus | em-ai aluak | é, dolonakin | a-lean | emi-akwoi | étsma | eham, kékeya | kanín | ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe | |||||
| Tonkawa | taˑkey | xʔaˑk | nemtan-xaˑ | henicxayʔan | yamʔacxan | ne̠ta̠le- | kala | nota- | naˑtan | ʔawas | ʔoˑn | ne̠kame- | tickan | hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)' | ||
| Coahuilteco | māux | tām | ahāuh | kuās, hātz | pīlam | aux | ||||||||||
| Solano | nikaog | |||||||||||||||
| Maratino | migtikui | |||||||||||||||
| Quinigua | kai | |||||||||||||||
| Naolan | mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my) | ma naːme; manáme (of deer) |
| language | dog | fish | louse | tree | leaf | flower | water | fire | stone | earth | salt | road | eat | die | I | you |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comecrudo | ketuaú, klám | atuís, selaú | ak 'blackish louse' | xaí | sel | awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí | áx̣ | klewém, len | woyekuél | kamlá | sepén | ál | to, kai | kamaú, plau, pokuét | na, ye-inán, yén | nánã |
| Cotoname | kowá-u | áx̣ | mánĕx | pén | dá-än | haháme | wátĕxo | |||||||||
| Karankawa | kec | áṃ, kiles | akwiní | klai, komkom | húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem | dem, ketac | aknámas | náyi | áwa | |||||||
| Tonkawa | ʔekˑan | neswalʔan | xaˑsoy-tlc | nahen- | ʔaˑx | mʔelʔan | yatexan | haˑc | mamʔe- | naˑx | ya̠xa- | hewawa- | saˑ- | naˑ-ya | ||
| Coahuilteco | talōm | tāp | hām | xūm, tzam | na, tzin | |||||||||||
| Solano | apam | tciene | namō 'eat it' | na- (?) | ||||||||||||
| Maratino | migtikui | paahtcu 'kill' | ||||||||||||||
| Quinigua | karama | ama, ami; ka | ana | ka, kwa, wa | pixa | ama | ama; ka(ene) | |||||||||
| Naolan | mi; míː | mi koːl; ma koːl (my) | mi, ma (poss.) |
References
editKing, Kendall A., ed. (2008). Sustaining linguistic diversity: endangered and minority languages and language varieties. Georgetown University round table on languages and linguistics. Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-192-2. OCLC 132681435.
- ^ King 2008, p. 23.
- ^ a b Ramer, Alexis Manaster (1996). "Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan". Anthropological Linguistics. 38 (1): 1–38. ISSN 0003-5483. JSTOR 30028442.
- ^ a b c d Swanton, John. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of southern Texas and northern Mexico.
- ^ Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.
- ^ Swanton, John R. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico. (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 127). Washington: Government Printing Office.
- ^ Gursky, Karl-Heinz (October 1964). "The Linguistic Position of the Quinigua Indians". International Journal of American Linguistics. 30 (4). The University of Chicago Press: 325–327. doi:10.1086/464792. JSTOR 1263527. S2CID 143736051.
- ^ del Hoyo, Eugenio. 1960. Vocablos de la Lengua Quinigua de los Indios Borrados del Noreste de México. Anuario del Centro de Estudios Humanisticos, Universidad de Nuevo León 1. 489-515.
- ^ Weitlaner, Roberto J.. 1948. Un Idioma Desconocido del Norte de México. In Actes du XXVIII Congrès International de Américanistes, 205-227. Paris.
- ^ Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Further reading
edit- Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan. Anthropological Linguistics 38/1, 1–38.
- Sapir, Edward. 1920. The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1 (4), 280–290.
- Swanton, John R. (1915). Linguistic position of the tribes of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. American Anthropologist, 17, 17–40.