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Hallucinogenic fish

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Several species of fish are claimed to produce hallucinogenic effects when consumed, a condition known as ichthyoallyeinotoxism. For example, Sarpa salpa, a species of sea bream referred to as the "dream-fish", is commonly claimed to be hallucinogenic.[1][2] These widely distributed coastal fish are normally found in the Mediterranean and around the Iberian Peninsula, west to the Azores and along the west and south coasts of Africa.[3] Occasionally they are found in British or more northerly waters.[4] They may induce hallucinogenic effects similar to LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) if eaten.[5] However, based on the reports of exposure they are more likely to resemble hallucinogenic effects of deliriants than the effects of serotonergic psychedelics such as LSD. In 2006, two men who apparently ate the fish experienced hallucinations lasting for several days (an effect common with some naturally occurring deliriants).[6][7] The likelihood of hallucinations depends on the season.[8][9] Sarpa salpa is known as "the fish that makes dreams" in Arabic.[6]

Ingesting the dreamfish Sarpa salpa can result in hallucinations that last for several days.

Other species claimed to be capable of producing hallucinations include several species of sea chub from the genus Kyphosus.[6] It is unclear whether the toxins are produced by the fish themselves or by marine algae in their diet. Other hallucinogenic fish are Siganus spinus,[10] called "the fish that inebriates" in Reunion Island, and Mulloidichthys flavolineatus (formerly Mulloidichthys samoensis),[11] called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii.[12]

Cause of hallucinations

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Some fish may become hallucinogenic after grazing on Caulerpa prolifera, a species of green alga that forms dense beds on shallow sandy areas.
 
Also implicated is Posidonia oceanica, a seagrass that lives in meadows along the Mediterranean coast.

The active agent(s) that cause hallucinations in humans, and the origin of these agents, are not clear. Some authors think they could come from toxins associated with macroalgae that accumulate in the flesh of the fish. Toxins from the green algae Caulerpa prolifera in the Mediterranean Sea appear to be implicated,[13] as is the seagrass Posidonia oceanica.[8] When herbivores eat seagrass leaves they ingest algal epiphytes and toxic dinoflagellates that live on the seagrass leaves.[14] The German anthropologist Christian Rätsch thinks that dreamfish might contain the hallucinogen DMT.[15]

A few reporters have eaten the dream fish and described their strange effects. The most famous user is Joe Roberts, a photographer for the National Geographic magazine. He broiled the dream fish in 1960. After eating the delicacy, he experienced intense hallucinations with a science-fiction theme that included futuristic vehicles, images of space exploration, and monuments marking humanity's first trips into space.[15]

Hallucinogenic species

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Fish species reported as hallucinogenic
Diet Family Image Species Common name Max length Reported locations[6] Notes Other sources
Herbivores Clown and damselfishes   Abudefduf septemfasciatus Banded sergeant
23 cm
 Gilbert Islands[16] [17][18]
Rabbitfish   Siganus argenteus Streamlined spinefoot
40 cm
 Mauritius[19] [20][21]
  Siganus corallinus Blue-spotted spinefoot
35 cm
 Mauritius[19] [22][23]
  Siganus luridus Dusky spinefoot
30 cm
 Israel[24][25] [26][27]
  Siganus rivulatus Marbled spinefoot
27 cm
 Mauritius[19]
Israel (suspected)[28] 		[29][30]
  Siganus spinus Little spinefoot
28 cm
 Réunion island[31] [10][32]
Sea breams   Sarpa salpa Salema
51 cm
 Tunisia[33]
France[34]
Israel[28][35] 		[3][36]
Sea chub   Kyphosus cinerascens Blue sea chub
50 cm
 Hawaii[37] [38][39]
  Kyphosus vaigiensis Brassy chub
70 cm
 Hawaii[37] [40][41]
  Kyphosus bigibbus Brown chub
75 cm
 Norfolk Island[42] Formerly Kyphosus fuscus [43][44]
Surgeon fish   Acanthurus triostegus Convict surgeonfish
27 cm
 Hawaii[37] [45][46]
Omnivores Goatfish   Mulloidichthys flavolineatus Yellowstripe goatfish
43 cm
 Hawaii[47][48][49] Formerly Mulloidichthys samoensis.[50]
Called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii[12][51] 		[11][52]
  Upeneus taeniopterus Finstripe goatfish
33 cm
 Hawaii[47][48][49] Formerly Upeneus arge [53][54]
Mullet   Mugil cephalus Flathead grey mullet
100 cm
 Hawaii[47] [55][56]
  Neomyxus leuciscus Acute-jawed mullet
46 cm
 Hawaii[47] Formerly Neomyxus chaptalli [57][58]
Carnivores Groupers   Epinephelus corallicola Coral grouper
49 cm
 Gilbert Islands[16] [59][60]

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism

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Main article: Ichthyoallyeinotoxism

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism, or hallucinogenic fish inebriation, is a clinical syndrome that refers to a hallucinogenic inebriation of a distressing nature that can arise from consuming hallucinogenic fish. It is characterised by "psychologic disturbances of hallucination and depression. Gastrointestinal disturbance may occur".[61] "Ichthyoallyeinotoxism is a kind of ichthysarcotoxism (fish flesh poisoning) responsible of an unusual clinical feature: it is the unique case of central nervous system ichthyotoxicity. The most frequent signs are dizziness, loss of co-ordination and hallucinations."[13]

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism may result from eating the flesh or the head of the fish where the poison is reputedly concentrated. This biotoxication is sporadic and unpredictable in its occurrence. The poison affects primarily the central nervous system. The symptoms may develop within a few minutes to 2 hours and persist for 24 hours or longer. Symptoms are dizziness, loss of equilibrium, lack of motor coordination, hallucinations and mental depression. A common complaint of the victim is that "someone is sitting on my chest", or there is a sensation of a tight constriction around the chest. The conviction that he is going to die, or some other frightening fantasy, is a characteristic part of the clinical picture. Other complaints consist of itching, burning of the throat, muscular weakness and abdominal distress. No fatalities have been reported, and in comparison with other forms of ichthyosarcotoxism, hallucinogenic fish poisoning is relatively mild... Ordinary cooking procedures do not destroy the poison.[62]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Orsolini, L.; Ciccarese, M.; Papanti, D.; De Berardis, D.; Guirguis, A.; Corkery, J. M.; Schifano, F. (2018). "Psychedelic fauna for psychonaut hunters: a mini-review". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 9: 153. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00153. PMC 5992390. PMID 29910745.
  2. ^ Jawad, Laith A. (2017). "Hallucinogenic fish". Dangerous Fishes of the Eastern and Southern Arabian Peninsula. Springer International. pp. 177–185. ISBN 978-3-319-57926-9.
  3. ^ a b Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Sarpa salpa". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  4. ^ "Fish that triggers hallucinations found off British coast". The Telegraph. 13 May 2009.
  5. ^ "'Hallucination' fish netted in Channel". The Guardian. 13 May 2009.
  6. ^ a b c d de Haro, L.; Pommier, P. (2006). "Hallucinatory fish poisoning (ichthyoallyeinotoxism): two case reports from the Western Mediterranean and literature review". Clinical Toxicology. 44 (2): 185–8. doi:10.1080/15563650500514590. PMID 16615678. S2CID 41191477.
  7. ^ Clarke, Matt (19 April 2006). "Men hallucinate after eating fish". Practical Fishkeeping. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
  8. ^ a b Bellassoued K, Hamza A, Abdelmouleh A, Makni FA, Van Pelt J, Elfeki A (2012). "Toxicity assessment of dreamfish Sarpa salpa from the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia, Eastern Mediterranean Sea)". Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment. 10 (2): 1308–1313.
  9. ^ de Haro L, Jouglard DE, Thomas MJ, David JM (1994). "Intoxications de type ciguatera after eating the Sparidae in Mediterranean". In Boudoresque, CF, Meinsez A, Gravez V (eds.). First International Workshop on Caulerpa taxifolia. France: GIS Posidonie Publ. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-905540-19-5.
  10. ^ a b Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Siganus spinus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  11. ^ a b Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Mulloides flavolineatus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  12. ^ a b Thomas, Craig; Scott, Susan (1 June 1997). All Stings Considered: First Aid and Medical Treatment of Hawai'i's Marine Injuries. Hawaii: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-8248-1900-2.
  13. ^ a b de Haro, L., Prost, N., Arditti, J., David, J. M., & Jouglard, J. (1998) "Ichthyoallyeinotoxism: a rare pathology" Toxicon, 36 (12): 1738–1739.
  14. ^ Kitting, Christopher L.; Fry, Brian; Morgan, Mark D. (1984). "Detection of inconspicuous epiphytic algae supporting food webs in seagrass meadows". Oecologia. 62 (2): 145–149. Bibcode:1984Oecol..62..145K. doi:10.1007/BF00379006. PMID 28310706. S2CID 24235492.
  15. ^ a b Pickover, Clifford A (2005) [ Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves] Chapter 1, page 9, Smart Publications. ISBN 978-1-890572-17-4.
  16. ^ a b Cooper MJ (1964) "Ciguatera and other marine poisoning in the Gilbert Islands", Pacific Science, 18 (4): 411–440.
  17. ^ Abudefduf septemfasciatus: Sevenband Damselfish Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  18. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Abudefduf septemfasciatus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  19. ^ a b c Halstead BW, Cox KM (1973) "An investigation on fish poisoning in Mauritius", Proc Roy Soc Arts Sci Mauritius, 4 (2): 1–26.
  20. ^ Siganus argenteus: Yellowspotted Spinefoot Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  21. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Siganus argenteus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  22. ^ Siganus corallinus: Blue-spotted spinefoot Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  23. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Siganus corallinus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  24. ^ Raikhlin-Eisenkraft B and Bentur Y (2002) "Rabbitfish ("Aras"). An unusual source of ciguatera poisoning" Israeli Medical Association Journal, 4: 28–30.
  25. ^ Herzberg A (1973) "Toxicity of Siganus luridus (Ruppell) on the Mediterranean Coast of Israël" Aquaculture, 2: 89–91.
  26. ^ Siganus luridus: Squaretail Rabbitfish Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  27. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Siganus luridus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  28. ^ a b Spanier E, Finkelstein Y and Raikhlin-Eisenkraft B (1989) "Toxicity of the saupe, Sarpa salpa (Linnaeus, 1758), on the Mediterranean coast of Israel" Archived 28 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Fish Biology, 34: 635–636. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1989.tb03342.x
  29. ^ Siganus rivulatus: Squaretail Rabbitfish Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  30. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Siganus rivulatus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  31. ^ Lebeau A (1979). "La ciguatera dans l'Océan Indien: étude des poissons vénéneux des bancs de l'archipel des Mascareignes et de la crète centrale de l'Océan Indien" (PDF). Rev Trav Inst Pêches Marit. 42 (4): 325–345.
  32. ^ Siganus spinus: Little spinefoot Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  33. ^ Chevaldonne P (1990) "Ciguatera and the saupe, Sarpa salpa (L.), in the Mediterranean: a possible misinterpretation" Journal of fish biology, 37: 503–504. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1990.tb05883.x
  34. ^ de Haro L, Treffot MJ, Jouglard J and Perringué C (1993) "Trois cas d'intoxication de type ciguatérique après ingestion de Sparidae de Méditerranée", Ictyophysiologica Acta, 16: 133–146.
  35. ^ Raikhlin-Eisenkraft B, Finkelstein Y, Spanier E (1988) "Ciguatera-like poisoning in the Mediterranean" Vet Hum Toxicol, 30 (6): 582–583.
  36. ^ Sarpa salpa: Salema porgy Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  37. ^ a b c Helfrich P (1963) "Fish Poisoning in Hawaii Hawaii Medical Journal, 22 (5): 361–372.
  38. ^ Kyphosus cinerascens: Blue Seachub Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  39. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Kyphosus cinerascens". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  40. ^ Kyphosus vaigiensis: Lowfinned Drummer Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  41. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Kyphosus vaigiensis". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  42. ^ Roughly TC, Roberts BJ (1960) "Bounty descendant live on remote Norfolk Island" Archived 24 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine National Geographic Magazine, 116 (6): 575.
  43. ^ Kyphosus bigibbus: Striped Drummer Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  44. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Kyphosus bigibbus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  45. ^ Acanthurus triostegus: Convict Tang Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  46. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Acanthurus triostegus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  47. ^ a b c d Helfrich P, Banner A. (1960) "Hallucinatory mullet poisoning" Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 1: 86–89.
  48. ^ a b Jordan DS, Evermann BW and Tanaka S (1927) "Notes on new or rare fishes from Hawaii", Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, 16 (20): 649–680.
  49. ^ a b Randall JE (1958) "A review of ciguatera, tropical fish poisoning, with tentative explanation of its cause", Bulletin of Marine Science Gulf Caribbean, 8 (3): 236–267.
  50. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Mulloidichthys samoensis". FishBase. October 2009 version.
  51. ^ Titcomb, Margaret (1951) "Memoir: Native use of fish in Hawaii" Archived 18 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine Journal of the Polynesian Society, 60" 1–146.
  52. ^ Mulloides flavolineatus: Yellowstripe goatfish Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  53. ^ Upeneus arge: Bandtail Goatfish Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  54. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Upeneus taeniopterus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  55. ^ Mugil cephalus: Striped Mullet Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  56. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Mugil cephalus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  57. ^ Neomyxus leuciscus: Brown Mullet Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  58. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neomyxus leuciscus". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  59. ^ Epinephelus corallicola: Malabar Grouper Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  60. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Epinephelus corallicola". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  61. ^ Report of the Seminar on Ichthyosarcotoxism Papeete 1968, South Pacific Commission.
  62. ^ R Bagnis R, F Berglund, PS Elias, GJ van Esch, BW Halstead and K Kojima (1970) "Problems of Toxicants in Marine Food Products: 1. Marine biotoxins" Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 42: 69–88.
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