Lithobates sphenocephalus[1][3] or Rana sphenocephala,[4][5][6] commonly known as the southern leopard frog, is a medium-sized anuran in the family Ranidae (the true frogs). The southern leopard frog is one of the 36 species currently or formerly classified in the Rana genus found in North America.[7] It is native to eastern North America from Kansas to New York to Florida. It is also an introduced species in some areas.[1] This species lives in cool, clear water in the north, whereas in the south it occurs in warmer turbid and murky waters of coastal and floodplain swamps, twilight zones of caves, and abandoned mines.[8]
| Southern leopard frog | |
|---|---|
| |
| Near the Ozarks in Missouri | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Ranidae |
| Genus: | Lithobates |
| Species: | L. sphenocephalus
|
| Binomial name | |
| Lithobates sphenocephalus (Cope, 1889)
| |
| Synonyms | |
Description
editThis frog is up to 13 cm (5.1 in) long. It is green or brown in color with a yellowish ridge along each side of the back. Rounded dark spots occur on the back and sides; a light spot is seen on each eardrum. Along with the dark colored reticulum, they have dark connected blotches of dark pigments and elongated features.[9] The male has larger fore limbs than the female. The breeding male's vocal sacs are spherical when inflated. The call is described as a "ratchet-like trill",[10] "chuckling croak",[11] or a "squeaky balloon-like sound".[12]
The larva is mottled, and the eyes are positioned on the top of the head. It grows to 7.6 cm (3.0 in) in length before maturing. The female lays an egg mass that is "baseball-sized" when close to hatching time, and contains up to 1500 eggs.[10] Some larva, eggs and embryos may be exposed to pesticides during their development causing significant mortality and developmental deformity.[13]
Ecology and behavior
editThis frog lives in many types of shallow freshwater habitat and sometimes in slightly brackish water. They usually look for wetter environments that have herbaceous plant cover and low canopy.[14] It is usually found close to water, but it can stay on dry land for long periods of time.[11] During warmer months, it moves away from the water for most of the time,[15] It is mostly nocturnal,[15] but it can be active during the day and the night, especially during rainfall. It breeds in the winter and spring, and sometimes in the fall. While there is a relationship between month and breeding activity, mean daily precipitation is the main factor that determines breeding activity.[11][16] Breeding can occur throughout the year in southern states but typically occurs in early spring.[17] The southern populations breed the longest.[18] They can breed in a variety of aquatic habitats ranging from ephemeral to permanent.[19] The egg mass is connected to aquatic vegetation.[12] It typically nests communally in cooler weather, and individually in warmer weather.[20][21] Communal egg deposition in cooler temperatures is thought to be an adaptation for increased egg and embryo survival, creating a thermal advantage, similar to that of the Wood frog.[22] Eggs hatch in 4 days to nearly two weeks.[15] It has been shown that L. sphenocephalus eggs hatch more quickly in response to the presence of predators such as crayfish.[23] The tadpoles take 50 to 75 days to develop to adulthood.[15]
In northern parts of its range, it is dormant during the winter, where it remains in well-oxygenated, unfrozen water bodies.[15] The recorded highest altitude of this species is 1000 feet.[24]
Southern leopard frogs feed primarily on insects, crayfish, and other invertebrates. They forage in upland areas during the summer.[6] In other parts of their range, their diet consists mainly of spiders, beetles, and gastropods such as snails.[25]
Range
editThis frog is widespread across eastern North America, especially the Southeast US. It is the most common frog in Florida and several other regions. It is an introduced species in The Bahamas, in Arizona[1] and at two locations in California. Southern leopard frogs are believed to have been introduced to the Prado Flood Control Basin via a shipment of aquatic fauna to the Chino Gun Club in 1929 or 1930; they are now common in areas of the basin undergoing urbanization.[15] A second established population of the species in California is now suspected, following the March 2016 discovery of two females in the San Joaquin River just northwest of Fresno on the border between Madera and Fresno Counties.[15]
Subspecies
editThe subspecies are:[15]
Gallery
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Southern Leopard Frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus), Occoquan Bay National Wildlife Refuge, Woodbridge, Virginia -
A metamorph -
Egg mass
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References
edit
- ^ a b c d IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2021). "Lithobates sphenocephalus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T58723A177496797. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T58723A177496797.en. Retrieved 24 July 2024.
- ^ Stejneger, L.H. and T. Barbour. (1917). A Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. p. 39
- ^ Frost, D.-R.; et al. (2009). "Response to the Point Of View of Gregory B. Pauly, David M. Hillis, and David C. Cannatella, by the Anuran Subcommittee of the SSRA/HL/ASIH Scientific and Standard English Names List". Herpetologica. 65 (2): 136–153. doi:10.1655/09-009R1.1. S2CID 55147982.
- ^ Hillis & Wilcox (2005), Hillis (2007), Stuart (2008), Pauly et al. (2009), AmphibiaWeb (2016)
- ^ Yuan, Z.-Y.; et al. (2016). "Spatiotemporal diversification of the true frogs (genus Rana): A historical framework for a widely studied group of model organisms". Systematic Biology. 65 (5): 824–842. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syw055. hdl:2292/43460. PMID 27288482.
- ^ a b "Rana sphenocephala". amphibiaweb.org. AmphibiaWeb. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
- ^ Conlon, J.M.; Halverson, T.; Dulka, J.; Platz, J.E.; Knoop, F.C. (1999). "Peptides of antimicrobial activity of the brevinin-1 family isolated from skin secretions of the southern leopard frog, Rana sphenocephala". The Journal of Peptide Research. 54 (6): 522–527. doi:10.1034/j.1399-3011.1999.00123.x.
- ^ McAllister, Chris T.; Trauth, Stanley E.; Bursey, Charles R. (1995). "Parasites of the Pickerel Frog, Rana palustris (Anura: Ranidae), from the Southern Part of Its Range". The Southwestern Naturalist. 40 (1): 111–116. JSTOR 30054403.
- ^ Schlesinger, M.; Feinberg, J. A.; Nazdrowicz, N. H.; Kleopfer, J. D.; Beane, J. C.; Bunnell, J. F.; et al. (2018). "Follow-up ecological studies for cryptic species discoveries: Decrypting the leopard frogs of the eastern U.S." PLoS ONE. 13 (11). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0205805. Art. No. e0205805.
- ^ a b NatureServe. 2015. Lithobates sphenocephalus. NatureServe Explorer Version 7.1. Accessed 15 June 2016.
- ^ a b c Norman, C. Southern Leopard Frog (Rana (Lithobates) sphenocephala). Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. University of Georgia.
- ^ a b Southern Leopard Frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus). Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation. University of Florida.
- ^ Bridges, C. M. (2000). "Long-Term Effects of Pesticide Exposure at Various Life Stages of the Southern Leopard Frog (Rana sphenocephala)". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 39 (1): 91–96. doi:10.1007/s002440010084.
- ^ Pitt, A. L.; Tavano, J. J.; Baldwin, R. F.; Stegenga, B. S. (2017). "Movement Ecology and Habitat Use of Three Sympatric Anuran Species" (PDF). Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 12 (1): 212–224. S2CID 165161178. Retrieved 24 July 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lithobates sphenocephalus – Southern Leopard Frog. California Herps.
- ^ Steen, David A.; McClure, Christopher J.W.; Graham, Sean P. (April 2013). "Relative influence of weather and season on anuran calling activity". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 91 (7): 462–467. doi:10.1139/cjz-2012-0266. ISSN 0008-4301.
- ^ Erdmann, J.A.; Godwin, C.D.; Villalba-Guerra, M.R.; Campbell, D.C.; Donini, J.; Parker, C.E.; Rupp, A.E.E.; Weyand, C.A.; Partin, M.A.J.; Borgardt, T.; Beachy, C.K. (2018). "Larval Life History of Lithobates sphenocephalus (southern leopard frog) in southeast Louisiana". Southeastern Naturalist. 17 (2): 221–229. doi:10.1656/058.017.0204. JSTOR 26496226.
- ^ Hughes, Daniel Frederick; Meshaka Jr., Walter E.; Delis, Pablo R. (2017). "Reproduction and growth of the Southern Leopard Frog, Lithobates sphenocephalus (Cope, 1886), in Virginia: implications for seasonal shifts in response to global climate change". Basic & Applied Herpetology. 31: 17–31. doi:10.11160/bah.53.
- ^ Adams, C.K. & Saenz, D. (2012). "Leaf litter of invasive Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera) negatively affects hatching success of an aquatic breeding anuran, the Southern Leopard Frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90 (8): 991–998. doi:10.1139/z2012-067.
- ^ McCallum, Malcolm L.; Trauth, Stanley E.; Mary, Michelle N.; McDowell, Charles; Wheeler, Benjamin A. (2004). "Fall breeding of the southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala) in northeastern Arkansas". Southeastern Naturalist. 3 (3): 401–408. doi:10.1656/1528-7092(2004)003[0401:FBOTSL]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86233608.
- ^ Pintar, Matthew R.; Resetarits, William J. (2018). "Variation in pond hydroperiod affects larval growth in southern leopard frogs, Lithobates sphenocephalus". Copeia. 106 (1): 70–76. doi:10.1643/CE-17-696. S2CID 53590323.
- ^ Caldwell, Janalee P. (1986). "Selection of Egg Deposition Sites: A Seasonal Shift in the Southern Leopard Frog, Rana sphenocephala". Copeia. 1986 (1): 249–253. doi:10.2307/1444923. JSTOR 1444923.
- ^ Saenz, Daniel (September 1, 2003). "Accelerated Hatching of Southern Leopard Frog (Rana sphenocephala) Eggs in Response to the Presence of a Crayfish (Procambarus nigrocinctus) Predator". Copeia. 2003 (3): 646–649. doi:10.1643/CE-02-172R1. S2CID 86158871.
- ^ Pickens, A. L. (1927). "Amphibians of Upper South Carolina". Copeia (165): 106–110. doi:10.2307/1437105. ISSN 0045-8511. JSTOR 1437105.
- ^ Forstner, J.M.; Forstner, M.R.J.; Dixon, J.R. (1998). "Ontogenetic effects on prey selection and food habits of two sympatric East Texas ranids: the southern leopard frog, Rana sphenocephala, and the bronze frog, Rana clamitans clamitans". Herpetological Review. 29 (4): 208–211. Retrieved 24 July 2024 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Meade, Thomas. "Lithobates sphenocephalus sphenocephalus (Florida Leopard Frog)". Animal Diversity Web.
- ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org.
Further reading
edit- AmphibiaWeb, available at http://amphibiaweb.org/
- Cope, E. D. (1886). "Synonymic list of the North American species of Bufo and Rana, with descriptions of some new species of Batrachia, from specimens in the National Museum". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 23 (124): 514–26.
- Hillis DM (1988). "Systematics of the Rana pipiens Complex: Puzzle and Paradigm". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 19: 39–63. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.19.110188.000351. JSTOR 2097147.
- Hillis, D. M. (2007). "Constraints in naming parts of the Tree of Life" (PDF). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 42 (2): 331–338. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.08.001. PMID 16997582.
- Hillis, David M.; Frost, John S.; Wright, David A. (1983). "Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Rana pipiens Complex: A Biochemical Evaluation". Systematic Zoology. 32 (2): 132–43. doi:10.1093/sysbio/32.2.132. JSTOR 2413277.
- Hillis, D. M.; Wilcox, T. P. (2005). "Phylogeny of the New World true frogs (Rana)" (PDF). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 34 (2): 299–314. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.10.007. PMID 15619443.
- Newman, C. E.; Rissler, L. J. (2011). "Phylogeographic analyses of the southern leopard frog: the impact of geography and climate on the distribution of genetic lineages vs. subspecies". Molecular Ecology. 20 (24): 5295–5312. Bibcode:2011MolEc..20.5295N. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05353.x. PMID 22066968. S2CID 32534906.
- Pauly, Greg B.; Hillis, David M.; Cannatella, David C. (2009). "Taxonomic freedom and the role of official lists of species names" (PDF). Herpetologica. 65 (2): 115–128. doi:10.1655/08-031r1.1. S2CID 283839. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26.
- Stuart, Bryan L (2008). "The phylogenetic problem of Huia (Amphibia: Ranidae)". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 46 (1): 49–60. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2007.09.016. PMID 18042407.
- Yuan, Z.-Y.; Zhou, W.-W.; Chen, X.; Poyarkov, N. A.; Chen, H.-M.; Jang-Liaw, N.-H.; Chou, W.-H.; Iizuka, K.; Min, M.-S.; Kuzmin, S. L.; Zhang, Y.-P.; Cannatella, D. C.; Hillis, D. M.; Che, J. (2016). "Spatiotemporal diversification of the true frogs (genus Rana): A historical framework for a widely studied group of model organisms". Systematic Biology. 65 (5): 824–842. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syw055. hdl:2292/43460. PMID 27288482.