Wikipedia

Colonia Roma

(Redirected from Roma (Mexico City))

Colonia Roma, also called La Roma or simply, Roma, is a district located in the Cuauhtémoc borough of Mexico City just west of the city's historic center. The area comprises two colonias: Roma Norte and Roma Sur, divided by Coahuila street.[2]

Colonia Roma
Neighborhood
Replica of Michelangelo's David in Plaza Río de Janeiro, a symbol of Colonia Roma
Replica of Michelangelo's David in Plaza Río de Janeiro, a symbol of Colonia Roma
Colonia Roma is located in Mexico City
Colonia Roma
Colonia Roma
Location in central Mexico City
Coordinates: 19°25′07″N 99°09′34″W / 19.418702°N 99.159567°W / 19.418702; -99.159567
Country Mexico
CityMexico City
BoroughCuauhtémoc
Population
 (2010)[1]
 • Total
45,205
By official neighborhood
 • Roma Norte27,770
 • Roma Sur17,435
Buildings along Colima Street in Colonia Roma

The colonia was originally planned as an upper-class Porfirian neighborhood in the early twentieth century. By the 1940s, it had become a middle-class neighborhood in slow decline, with the downswing being worsened by the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. Since the 2000s, the area has seen increasing gentrification.[3]

Roma and neighbouring Condesa are known for being the epicenter of trendy/hipster[4] subculture in the city, and Roma has consequently been called the "Williamsburg of Mexico City".[5] Additionally, the area rivals Polanco as the center of the city's culinary scene. Besides residential buildings, the neighborhood streets are lined with restaurants, bars, clubs, shops, cultural centers, churches and galleries. Many are housed in former Art Nouveau and Neo-Classical buildings dating from the Porfiriato period at the beginning of the 20th century. Roma was designated as a "Barrio Mágico" ("magical neighborhood") by the city in 2011.[6]

History

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Main article: History of Colonia Roma
 
Paisaje de San Cristóbal Romita, Luis Coto, 1857. In the distance on the left can be seen the Castillo de Chapultepec.

The area was a very shallow part of Lake Texcoco, dotted with tiny islands and one small island village of Aztacalco during the pre-Hispanic period. During the colonial period, the area dried up and became rural lands first owned by Hernán Cortés and then by the Counts of Miravalle. The village that would become known as La Romita was connected to the village of San Miguel Chapultepec by a treelined road reminiscent of one in Rome.[7] Thereafter, the surrounding area became known as the "Potreros de Romita" (Pastures of Romita) and these pastures eventually lead to the naming of the colonia.[8]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the area west of what was Mexico City proper was being turned into “modern” colonias for the wealthy seeking to escape the deterioration of the city center. The colonia's height as a wealthy enclave was from its founding in the 1900s until about the 1940s. However, wealthy residents began to move to newer neighborhoods as early as the 1940s and problems associated with urbanization began to appear in the 1950s. Older mansions began to give way to modern commercial buildings in the 1960s and 1970s as the deterioration became more serious. The 1985 Mexico City earthquake caused widespread destruction in the colonia, especially to newer and more commercial and apartment buildings, even causing one major development to mostly disappear. Since then, there have been efforts to conserve the area's architectural heritage and regain some of its former prestige with some success.

Geography

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Boundaries

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Roma's borders are:

Avenida Coahuila divides Roma into the officially recognized neighborhoods of Roma Norte and Roma Sur.[10]

 
Park median in Avenida Álvaro Obregón

Sub-districts

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Roma consists of several sub-areas:

Roma Norte II and III

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Roma Norte II[11] and III,[12] east of Avenida de los Insurgentes and north of Av. Coahuila, bisected by Roma's signature boulevard, Avenida Álvaro Obregón, is where the vast majority of the hippest restaurants, bars, clubs, etc. are found. It is home to about 1,100 mansions and other architecturally and historically important structures, mostly built between 1906 and 1939. Most of these are no longer residences but rather offices, cultural centers and other businesses. Examples of these adaptations include the Casa Lamm Cultural Center, the Casa Universitaria del Libro, the main building of the Universidad de Londres and the various art galleries which are mostly found on Colima street. In the northeast corner of this area is the pre-Hispanic village of La Romita.

Roma Norte I – Cibeles area

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The "Cibeles" fountain

Roma Norte I, west of Insurgentes, has fewer landmark buildings and is a mix of offices, restaurants, retail and residential. The Palacio de Hierro department store Durango branch occupies a city block here and the landmark Fuente de Cibeles fountain is at the center of a major cluster of restaurants, cafés and clubs.

La Romita
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Main article: La Romita
 
View of the Santa María de la Natividad Aztacalco church in La Romita.

La Romita is a small section of Roma which used to be an independent village and colonia and whose streets are still significantly different from the rest of Roma. The territory of modern Colonia Roma in pre-Hispanic times consisted of the very shallow waters of Lake Texcoco and a number of very small islands of firm ground, on one of which stood the village of Aztacalco. It was an independent village until the very early 20th century, when it was made its own colonia in 1903 with the name of La Romita.[10] When Colonia Roma was created, Romita was officially incorporated into it, but the local residents fought redevelopment. The area has since developed semi-independently from the rest of Colonia Roma, both in infrastructure and socially.[13] Even today, the area is relatively difficult to access, with narrow streets leading to a very small plaza and church called Santa María de la Natividad de Aztacalco (established in 1550).[13][10] The local residents were of a significantly lower social class than the rest of Roma, with the wealthy residents avoiding it for fear of thieves. The area still has a reputation for crime and is found at the extreme northeast of the colonia near Metro Cuauhtémoc.[13]

Roma Sur

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The Mercado Medellín market in Roma Sur

East of Insurgentes and south of Coahuila street, Roma Sur is much more traditional than hip Roma Norte. There are many Latin American immigrants here, plus restaurants and shops catering to them. The Mercado Medellín is located here and is famous for Latin American goods and food as well. It continues to be a predominantly residential neighborhood and has not experienced the same level of gentrification as Roma Norte. This area of the district gained international attention as a result of Alfonso Cuarón's 2018 film Roma; Cuarón lived on Tepeji Street as a child.[14]

Centro Urbano Benito Juárez

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Main article: Centro Urbano Benito Juárez

In the far southeast corner of Roma stands the Centro Urbano Benito Juárez, or Multifamiliar Juárez, a very large apartment complex in the 1940s and early 1950s. It was one of several projects of this type by architect Mario Pani, designed to house city government workers and to be semi-autonomous with its own schools, administration, businesses etc.[15] and incorporate as much outdoors space as possible.[16] Carlos Mérida’s mural work here was the most important of his career and the largest mural project in Mexico in the 20th century.[17] Most of the complex and murals were destroyed by, or demolished after the 1985 Mexico City earthquake.[18] Most of the land where the demolished buildings stood has become the Jardín Ramón López Velarde park.[19]

Cityscape

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Dilapidated early 20th century home next to a modern apartment building. Roma has seen significant gentrification since the 2000s.

The colonia was an exclusive area for the wealthy on the edge of the city when it was built in the very early 20th century. Roma started to decline around the mid 20th century and was heavily affected by the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. In the 21st century, it has revived somewhat as a Bohemian area with restaurants, art galleries, offices and more. Today, the area attracts younger generations of artists, writers and urban hipsters, with rents rising once again.[13]

Most of the streets are quiet and lined with large, leafy trees, mostly how they were laid out when the colonia was built.[13] The largest street is Avenida Álvaro Obregón, whose traffic islands have large trees, walking paths and metal benches. On weekends, these islands fill with vendors selling art, antiques and collectibles.[13] However, this and other of the larger streets such as Oaxaca, Querétaro and San Luis Potosí, were designated as “ejes” or axis streets in the 1950s for through traffic.[20]

Along with the tree lined streets, green spaces were also created with the addition of small parks called plazas. The old heart of the neighborhood is the Plaza Río de Janeiro, originally called Plaza Roma. This plaza is surrounded by a number of old mansions as well as a couple a tall modern towers. In the center, there is a fountain and a replica of Michelangelo’s David. One mansion that faces this plaza is popularly called the La Casa de las Brujas (House of the Witches) although its official name is the Edificio Rio de Janeiro. The popular name of this red-brick castle-like structure, built in 1908, comes from the face that seems to be formed by the windows on the top of the corner tower and the Art Deco entrance, which was added in the 1930s. The Plaza Luis Cabrera is on the corner of Guanajuato and Orizaba Streets. It was the setting for part of a short story called “La batallas en el desierto” by José Emilio Pacheco.[13]

While there have been efforts to restore the area's reputation as aristocratic and upscale, the area still has problems associated with deterioration. There are a number of cabarets and men's clubs, which have attracted and sustained prostitution in the area.[21] There are still unmaintained and abandoned buildings in which live squatters and other very poor people. In the 1990s, there was a small, poor community of about 35 Otomi in the colonia, living in abject poverty. Most earned money and depend on community soup kitchens. Most lived as squatters in abandoned buildings.[22]

Architecture

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Casa Prunes, an Art Nouveau mansion
 
Building at Zacatecas Street 120 which currently houses the Universidad de la Comunicación.

Roma is one of a number of “modern” colonias such as Colonia Juárez, Santa María la Ribera and Colonia San Rafael, which were built on what was the western edge of the city in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for wealthy residents looking to escape the city center. The streets and houses were designed and built based on European styles, which can still be seen today, especially on Orizaba, Alvaro Obregon, Colima and Tonalá Streets, where the older facades are best conserved. These were homes of bankers, factory owners, politicians, artists and businessmen who worked in the city center but lived here.[23][21] Like its sister colonias, Roma has since lost many of its original mansion homes, but it has resisted this loss better. Today, there are an estimated 1,100 structures which date from the 1930s or earlier, compared to the 500 to 600 the remain in Santa María la Ribera and Colonia Juárez.[21] Most of the area's historically and architecturally significant structures were built between 1906 and 1939.[24] These earlier structures include examples of Neo-colonial (which imitate the styles built during Mexico's colonial period) and Art Deco, but most are “Porfirian,” meaning that they are a mix of French, Roman, Gothic and Moorish elements which were all fashionable in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[21] One of these old mansions was the home of television personality Paco Stanley, who says he bought the structure because of its “small friendly ghosts,” naming it “La Princesita” or The Little Princess. Stanley uses the property both as living space and office.[25] These houses and streets have provided the backdrop for films such as Los Olvidados, filmed in La Romita by Luis Buñuel and literary works such as Batallas en el desierto by José Emilio Pacheco, Agua Quemada by Carlos Fuentes, Manifestacion de Silencios by Arturo Azuela and El vampiro de la colonia roma by Luis Zapata.[26]

However, the colonia now also has a large number of more modern structures, defined as having been built since the 1950s. These structures came to replace many of the original structures as the character of the colonia changed, along with the lack of urban planning, zoning and the destruction caused by the 1985 earthquake.[21] Owners of many of the older structures have had or have wanted to demolish or radically change them for economic reasons, a process which still persists today.[26] In cases where they have succeeded, modern office and apartment buildings have appeared. Not only are these structures taller and markedly different in design,[21] they also weigh more, affecting the ground around them and causing damage to remaining earlier structures.[27]

While the older mansions are no longer economically viable as residences, there has been efforts since the 1990s to save them, by converting them into offices, stores, restaurants and other businesses with restrictions aimed at conserving their facades and the colonia's overall character.[21][26] Like neighboring Colonia Condesa, Roma has a number of cafes, restaurants and other eateries established in older structures (as well as newer ones), especially along Álvaro Obregón, Colima, and Orizaba streets, and on plazas Río de Janeiro and Luis Cabrera.

Demographics

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Pedestrians in Roma outside the Galería Terreno Baldío Arte

The 2010 population of Roma Norte was 27,770 and of Roma Sur 17,406. The 2000 population of Roma Norte was 26,610 and of Roma Sur 17,406.[1]

Since the 1990s, there was a small poor community of about 35 Otomi in the colonia, living in abject poverty. Most earned money and depend on community soup kitchens. Most live as squatters in abandoned buildings.[22]

Jewish community in Roma and Condesa

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In the 1930s and 40s many Jewish residents moved from downtown Mexico City to Roma and Condesa, where Yiddish was the unofficial language of Parque España, the local park. A few synagogues are still in operation in Roma, like the Yehuda Halevi Synagogue. Today, in adjacent Condesa, there are several more small orthodox synagogues hidden inside houses on Amsterdam Avenue, and another synagogue at the corner of Montes de Oca and Parral streets.[28] In the 1950s, 60s, and 70s, Jews moved further west to Polanco, Lomas de Chapultepec, Interlomas, Bosques de las Lomas, and Tecamachalco, where the majority are now based.[29]

Economy

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Shopping

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Roma is home to free-standing Palacio de Hierro and Woolworth department stores. Enclosed malls include the Plaza Insurgentes shopping center,[30] anchored by Sears, located on the site of the first Sears in Mexico, opened in 1947, and prior to that, the American Embassy.[31] On Cuauhtémoc street are the Plaza Centro Cultural and Pabellón Cuauhtémoc. The large Parque Delta shopping center borders Roma on the south.

Public markets

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Mercado Medellín is located in Roma Sur (southern Roma) and is well known for offering products from other Latin American countries, particularly Cuba, Colombia and Venezuela.

Arts and culture

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Art

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Colima Street is home to a number of art galleries which have worked since the 1990s to establish themselves as an international art market to compete with New York, Paris, London and Tokyo. These galleries include the Landucci Gallery. Artists such as Mexican photographer Victor Carresquedo and American Barry Wolfryd have set up shop in the area as well as the Centro Libre de Arte, Mexico City's newest fine arts school. The goal is to promote Mexican art from its current status as regionally relevant to one with broader appeal, by not only promoting native artists more effectively at home but also by sponsoring international tours, featuring established artists such as Francisco Toledo, Roberto Márquez and Alfredo Castaneda as well as newer talents such as Cisco Jimenez and Guillermo Kuitca. The area is also attracting South American and Central American artists looking to break into the U.S. and world art markets.[32]

It stands out for being one of the main points in the city where street art is present. You can find different murals made by national and international artists such as D*Face, Interesni Kaski, Saner, Revost among others.

Stage and cinema

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The Centro Cultural (formerly Telmex) theater complex is located in the northeast corner of Roma, while Cine Tonalá is a well-known indie/art-house cinema in Roma Sur with a sister venue in Bogotá, Colombia.[33] Cinemex multiplex cinemas are located in three enclosed shopping centers around Roma.[34]

The district is the namesake for the 2018 film Roma, written and directed by Alfonso Cuarón, which takes place in the neighborhood during the 1970s.[35]

Museums and libraries

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Casa Lamm

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Casa Lamm Cultural Center

Casa Lamm is a cultural center and restaurant located in a restored mansion that dates to 1911 on Avenida Álvaro Obregón.[13][36][23] The institute consists of art exhibition space and management, some graduate level programs in the fine arts and a restaurant and bookstore, which are open to the public. Since it opened, it has hosted numerous art exhibitions.[13] In 1994, Casa Lamm, along with art galleries OMR and Nina Menocal have worked to make Roma a center for the visual arts in Mexico, attracting more galleries, artists and others to set up shop here.[36]

The institute offers studies in poetry, novel writing and theater of the 20th century. It also offers a master's degree in Literary Appreciation and Creation, which combines both classes on criticism as well as workshops for writers mostly focusing on Latin American and European works.[37] On the ground floor of the building, facing the street are the bookstore and restaurant.[13] The restaurant, called "Nueve Nueve" is centered on an open-air patio accented by a black fountain.[38]

Casa Universitaria del Libro

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The Casa Universitaria del Libro (University House of Books) is located on Puebla and Orizaba Streets. The building dates from 1920, when it was built by Joaquin Barando for the McGregor family. During the Second World War it was used as the Brazilian embassy. The Centro Asturiano took possession in the 1930s. When this institution moved to Polanco in 1986, it began to lease the building free to the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM).[10][39] Although unproven, it is still rumored that the house was used for prostitution at one point and there is also local legend which states that a ghosts wanders through its halls, rooms and especially in the terrace.[39] The bookstore specializes in the promotion of mostly written works produced by those associated with UNAM in the center of the city away from the Ciudad Universitaria. It sponsors approximately 250 activities per year such as book readings and signings, conferences, seminars and round tables. There is no other bookstore in Mexico dedicated solely to the promotion of a university's academic and literary production.[39]

Museo Objeto del Objeto

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Museo Objeto del Objeto (Object of the Object Museum or MODO) was inaugurated in 2010, following Mexico City's tradition of collectors founding or expanding museums with their personal collections. This museum is based on the collection of ordinary objects such as commercial packaging (especially beverage containers), advertisements, household appliances and more for a total of over 30,000 items collected by Bruno Newman over more than forty years. The museum is dedicated to communication and design, using the collection as a starting point for collaboration and research.[40][41]

Casa del Poeta Museo Ramón López Velarde

Located on Alvaro Obregon and Córdoba streets, the Casa del Poeta is a museum and hosts libraries 'Salvador Novo' and 'Efraín Huerta'.[42][43]

Churches

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Sagrada Familia parish

The Sagrada Familia Church is located on the corner of Puebla and Orizaba Streets. Its architecture is classified as Romanesque Revival and Gothic Revival, it was designed by Mexican architect Manuel Gorozpe. The first stone was laid in 1906, but most of structure was built between 1910 and 1912, of reinforced concrete. At the time, the church was criticized as “mediocre, ostentatious and of decadent taste”. In the 1920s, painter and Jesuit priest Gonzalez Carrasco decorated the interior with murals, with two smaller paintings realized by Hermano Tapia. The interior also contains the remains of Miguel Agustín Pro, a Jesuit priest executed by Plutarco Elias Calles in 1927 during the Cristero War and considered to be a martyr. The church is fronted by a small atrium bordered by a wrought-iron fence constructed by the Gábelich workshop, which was in neighboring Colonia Doctores. It is one of the few wrought iron works to survive from the early 20th century.[44]

On Avenida Cuauhtémoc between Querétaro and Zacatecas streets is the Nuestra Señora del Rosario Church, which was built by Mexican architects Angel and Manuel Torres Torija. This church is Gothic Revival begun in 1920 and concluded in 1930. While built after the Porfirio Díaz era of the late 19th and early 20th century, the church shares many of the features as churches from that time. Records indicate that the project was probably planned around 1911 but was delayed due to the Mexican Revolution. The facade contains a decorative rose window, common to Gothic styles with ojival doors and windows. The interior is spacious with three naves with notable stained glass windows with orient themselves vertically.[44]

Parks and recreation

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Fountains and cultural exhibition at Plaza Luis Cabrera

The neighborhood contains small public squares at Plaza Luis Cabrera, Plaza Río de Janeiro, Plaza Villa de Madrid (more commonly known as "Cibeles" as it contains the Fuente de Cibeles fountain, a replica of the one in Madrid), and tiny Plaza Juan Rulfo. Two full-size parks are Jardín Pushkin and Jardín Ramón López Velarde, while there are pocket parks at Jardín Edith Sánchez Ramírez and at the corner of Querétaro and Tonalá streets. Avenida Alvaro Obregon has a pedestrian median (camellón) lined with gardens and fountains with characters from Roman and Greek mythology.[45]

Education

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In addition to the educational programs at the Casa Lamm and the Casa Universitaria del Libro, Roma has a number of private educational institutions from primary school to university. Some, such as the Instituto Pedagogico Anglo Espanol, the Instituto Renacimiento and the Colegio Mexico have been established since the first half of the 20th century.[23]

There are two universities based in Roma. The Universidad de Londres is a mostly business college. Its main campus is in Colonia Roma, but it also has eight other facilities in other parts of Mexico City and three in other parts of Mexico. The Roma campus is housed in one of the palatial mansions from the Porfirian era on Orizaba street. It offers twenty bachelor's degrees, eight master's and eight certificate programs.[46]

The Universidad de las Américas de la Ciudad de México (UDLA) was founded in 1940 as the Mexico City Junior College (MCC). In the 1960s, its name changed to the University of the Americas and shortly thereafter to the current one. It was founded in Colonia Roma but moved to a facility on the Mexico City-Toluca highway. When the institution split in the 1980s, one campus moved to Puebla and the other moved to the current location back in Colonia Roma in newly built facilities.[47] UDLA offers seven bachelor's degrees, four graduate degrees and various certificate programs. It is located in a modern facility on Puebla Street.[48]

Colegio Amado Nervo is a private school in Colonia Roma Sur.[49]

The Colegio Liceo Mexicano, a private elementary school, is in Colonia Roma.[50] Several other small public and private school and universities exist in the area.

Transportation

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The neighborhood has public bus, Metrobus bus rapid transit, pesero (minibus), trolleybus and metro (subway/underground) service, as well as EcoBici bikeshare stands. Metro stations are all at the edges of the neighborhood and include Sevilla, Insurgentes, Cuauhtémoc, Centro Médico, and Chilpancingo.

Roma is bordered or crossed by several ejes viales (main crosstown arteries, mostly one-way): 1 Sur (two-way, Chapultepec), 2 Sur (eastbound, Yucatán/Querétaro/San Luis Potosí), 1 Poniente (two-way, Cuauhtémoc), 2 Poniente (northbound, Monterrey), and 3 Poniente (southbound, Yucatán/Medellín). The southern boundary of the neighborhood is the Viaducto Miguel Alemán freeway.[51]

References

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  1. ^ a b ""Entorno", Cuauhtémoc borough website, retrieved 2016-08-23". Archived from the original on 2016-02-09. Retrieved 2016-08-23.
  2. ^ "En tu colonia" (In your neighborhood), Cuauhtémoc borough website, retrieved Sept. 9, 2019 Archived 2013-06-12 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ "Roma sets the scene: The magical Mexico City district behind the film". TheGuardian.com. 17 February 2019.
  4. ^ Sansores, Raúl Gasque (22 September 2016). "La Roma y la Condesa antes de los hipsters". Vice (in Spanish). Retrieved 30 June 2024.
  5. ^ Waldman, Rachel (16 March 2018). "Wandering Colonia Roma, the Williamsburg of Mexico City". Vogue. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
  6. ^ Quintanar Hinojosa, Beatriz, ed. (November 2011). "Mexico Desconocido Guia Especial:Barrios Mágicos" [Mexico Desconocido Special Guide:Magical Neighborhoods]. Mexico Desconocido (in Spanish). Mexico City: Impresiones Aereas SA de CV: 5–6. ISSN 1870-9400.
  7. ^ Olivares, Pablo (15 December 2015). "Romita, el rincón defeño". Silencio se viaja (in Spanish). Retrieved 1 July 2024.
  8. ^ "La Roma: ¿por qué se llama así esta icónica colonia de la CDMX?". Radio Fórmula (in Mexican Spanish). 31 January 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
  9. ^ "ROMA NORTE I", Instituto Electoral del Distrito Federal (Federal District Electoral Institute website)
  10. ^ a b c d "Colonia Roma" [Colonia Roma] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Borough of Cuauhtémoc. Archived from the original on August 10, 2008. Retrieved November 11, 2010.
  11. ^ "ROMA NORTE II", Instituto Electoral del Distrito Federal (Federal District Electoral Institute website)
  12. ^ "ROMA NORTE III", Instituto Electoral del Distrito Federal (Federal District Electoral Institute website)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Humphrey, Chris (2005). Moon Handbooks-Mexico City. Berkeley, CA: Avalon Travel Publishing. pp. 63–66. ISBN 978-1-56691-612-7.
  14. ^ "'Life goes on': Mexico City house featured in Roma up for sale". the Guardian. 8 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  15. ^ "Centro Urbanos" [Urban Centers] (in Spanish). Mexico: ARQHYS Architect's site. September 2, 2007. Retrieved August 18, 2010.
  16. ^ Blair Allen Paltridge (1992). Carlos Merida's integration of art, architecture and ideology in the Multifamiliar Juarez (PhD thesis). University of California, Los Angeles. p. 78. Docket AAT 9224132.
  17. ^ Blair Allen Paltridge (1992). Carlos Merida's integration of art, architecture and ideology in the Multifamiliar Juarez (PhD thesis). University of California, Los Angeles. p. 7. Docket AAT 9224132.
  18. ^ "Centro Urbano Benito Juárez" [Urban Center Benito Juarez] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Borough of Cuauhtémoc. Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. Retrieved August 18, 2010.
  19. ^ Anayansin Inzunza. (May 22, 2004). "Exigen vecinos rescatar parque en la Roma Sur" [Neighbors demand rescue of park in Roma Sur]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 5.
  20. ^ Miryam Audiffred Laso (February 2, 1997). "Huellas de historia en la Colonia Roma" [Footprints of the history of Colonia Roma]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 5.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g Arturo Mendoza. (January 10, 1996). "Por esas calles de la Colonia Roma" [Through the streets of Colonia Roma]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 10.
  22. ^ a b Marcela Turati. (March 21, 1999). "La Roma Otomi; [1]" [The Otomi of Roma]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 4.
  23. ^ a b c Diego Ayala (March 31, 1996). "Buscan su tradicion y calidad de diseno" [Searching for its tradition and quality of design]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City.
  24. ^ Dora Luz Haw. (March 13, 2002). "Exigen un reglamento para la Colonia Roma" [Demand for regulations for Colonia Roma]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 3.
  25. ^ Angelica De Leon. (April 27, 1998). "Tiene su 'princesita' en la Colonia Roma" [He has his "little princess" in Colonia Roma]. El Norte (in Spanish). Monterrey, Mexico. p. 9.
  26. ^ a b c Adriana D. Valasis. (March 1, 1997). "Colonia Roma: Patrimonio arquitectonico/ Se niega a morir" [Colonia Roma: Architectonical heritage/Refuses to die]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 4.
  27. ^ Antimio Cruz. (September 25, 2002). "Pretenden frenar deterioro de la Roma" [Intending to stop the deterioration of Roma]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 2.
  28. ^ Vivienne Stanton (April 2009), Out of sight: The many faces of Jewish Mexico, archived from the original on 2013-10-17
  29. ^ Vivienne Stanton (September 13, 2010), The many faces of Jewish Mexico
  30. ^ Plaza Insurgentes official website
  31. ^ “Las 6 direcciones más icónicas de la colonia” (“The neighborhood’s 6 most iconic addresses”), ”Zacatecas 123” (pamphlet), Punto Destino
  32. ^ Sgambati, Albert (November 1997). "Rise of the Roma Empire". Business Mexico. 7 (11). Mexico City: 53–56.
  33. ^ Gutiérrez, Vicente (2013-04-01). "El Cine Tonalá, deslumbrante". El Economista. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
  34. ^ Google Maps search for "cinema"
  35. ^ Bradshaw, Peter (2018-08-30). "Roma review: Alfonso Cuarón returns to Venice – and Mexico – for a heart-rending triumph". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2018-12-08.
  36. ^ a b Blanca Ruiz (September 15, 2000). "Travesias/ Corredor de la Roma" [Journeys/Colonia Roma Corridor]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 34.
  37. ^ Leslie Aguirre. (June 25, 2007). "Casa Lamm: Para tu escritor interno" [Casa Lamm: For your inner writer]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 28.
  38. ^ Saliba, Armando (September 2003). "Casa Lamm". Business Mexico. 13 (9). Mexico City: 62.
  39. ^ a b c Leticia Sanchez. (October 28, 1996). "Cumple 10 anos la Casa Universitaria del Libro" [Casa Universitaria del Libro celebrates 10th birthday]. Reforma (in Spanish). Mexico City. p. 4.
  40. ^ "Abre el Museo del Objeto del Objeto la muestra Colección de colecciones con más de 500 artículos de la vida cotidiana" [Museo Objeto del Objecto opens exhibit called "Colección de colecciones" with over 500 objects from everyday life] (in Spanish). Mexico: CONACULTA. May 19, 2011. Retrieved August 14, 2011.
  41. ^ "¿Qué es el Museo del Objeto del Objeto? Abrirá este sábado" [What is the Object of the Object Museum. Will open this Saturday]. Milenio (in Spanish). Mexico City. October 20, 2010. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. Retrieved August 14, 2011.
  42. ^ "Casa del Poeta Museo Ramón López Velarde". museu.ms. Retrieved 2020-08-05.
  43. ^ "Casa del Poeta "Ramón López Velarde"". casapoetalopezvelarde.blogspot.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 2020-08-05.
  44. ^ a b Edgardo Ra (19 July 2010). "Las iglesias porfirianas de la ciudad de México" [The Porfirio Diaz era churches of Mexico City] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Mexico Desconocido magazine. Retrieved November 11, 2010.
  45. ^ Leandro Arellano, "Los Bronces de Obregón" (The bronze statues of Obregón street), La Jornada semanal, 8 December 2013
  46. ^ "Universidad en la Ciudad de México, D. F., Del. Cuauhtémoc" [The University in Mexico City, Cuauhtémoc Borough] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Universidad de Londres. Retrieved November 11, 2010.
  47. ^ "Información Institucional" [Institutional information] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Universidad de las Américas. Archived from the original on June 5, 2010. Retrieved November 11, 2010.
  48. ^ "Universidad de las Américas-Ciudad de Mexico" [University of the Americas-Mexico City] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Universidad de las Américas. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved November 11, 2010.
  49. ^ "Contacto Archived 2016-04-01 at the Wayback Machine." Colegio Amado Nervo. Retrieved on April 15, 2016. "Jardín de Niños y Primaria Bajío no. 315 Colonia Roma Sur México D.F." and "Secundaria y Preparatoria Bajío no. 220 Colonia Roma Sur México D.F."
  50. ^ "Contacto Archived 2015-03-06 at the Wayback Machine." Colegio Liceo Mexicano. Retrieved on June 18, 2014. CÓRDOBA #167, COLONIA ROMA, MÉXICO, D.F. CUAUHTÉMOC. CP: 06700, ENTRE ZACATECAS Y QUERÉTARO"
  51. ^ Google Map of Roma, accessed 2016-08-21
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19°24′59.08″N 99°9′42.11″W / 19.4164111°N 99.1616972°W / 19.4164111; -99.1616972

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