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9K33 Osa

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"SA-8" redirects here. For the Apollo flight, see A-104 (SA-8). For other uses, see SA8 (disambiguation).

The 9K33 Osa (Russian: 9К33 «Оса»; English: "wasp"; NATO reporting name SA-8 Gecko) is a highly mobile, low-altitude, short-range tactical surface-to-air missile system developed in the Soviet Union in the 1960s and fielded in 1972. Its export version name is Romb.[6]

9K33 Osa
(NATO reporting name: SA-8 Gecko, SA-N-4 Gekko)
9A33BM3 transporter-launcher and radar vehicle of the upgraded 9K33M3 Osa-AKM.
Type6×6 amphibious SAM system
Place of originSoviet Union
Service history
In service1971–present
Used bySee list of present and former operator
Wars
Production history
DesignerNII-20 Research Institute
Designed1960–1972
ManufacturerZnamya Truda Plant
Produced1970–1988[3]
No. built1,200[4]
VariantsOSA-A, OSA-AK, OSA-AKM, OSA-M
Specifications (OSA-AKM)
Mass17.5 tonnes
Length9.14 m (30 ft 0 in)
Width2.75 m (9 ft 0 in)
Height4.20 m (13 ft 9 in) (radar mast stowed)
Crew5 soldiers
Main
armament
6 9M33, 9M33M1, 9M33M2 or 9M33M3 missiles
EngineD20K300 diesel
Ground clearance400 mm (16 in)
Operational
range
500 km (311 mi)[5]
Maximum speed 80 km/h (50 mph)
8 km/h (5.0 mph) (swimming)

Description

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Polish OSA-AKM.

The Osa was the first mobile air defense missile system incorporating its own engagement radars on a single vehicle.

All versions of the 9K33 feature all-in-one 9A33 transporter erector launcher and radar (TELAR) vehicles which can detect, track and engage aircraft independently or with the aid of regimental surveillance radars. The six-wheeled transport vehicles BAZ-5937 are fully amphibious and air transportable. The road range is about 500 km.

The 1S51M3-2 radar system of the 9K33 Osa TELAR received the NATO codename Land Roll. It was derived from the naval 'Pop Group' radar system but is smaller as it does not require a stabilisation system. An improved system, the Osa-AKM (NATO reporting name SA-8B 'Gecko' Mod 1) was first seen in Germany in 1980. It had improvements to the launcher configuration, carrying six missiles in ribbed containers.

The system is reported to be of the frequency-agile monopulse type. It consists of an elliptical rotating surveillance antenna mounted on top of the array, operates in H band (6 to 8 GHz) and has a 30 km acquisition range against most targets. The large pulsed J band (14.5 GHz) engagement antenna is mounted below it in the centre of the array and has a maximum tracking range of about 20 km.

Mounted on either side of the tracking radar antenna is a small J band parabolic dish antenna to track the missile. Below it is a small circular antenna which emits an I band uplink capture beam to gather the missile shortly after launch. The final antennas in the array are two small white rectangular ones, one on either side of the array mounted alongside the I band, used for command uplink to the missile. The twin antenna system permits the 'Land Roll' radar to control up to two missiles simultaneously against a single target.

Two missiles can be guided on different frequencies to further complicate electronic countermeasures (ECM). The 9Sh33 electro optical tracker is fitted to and above the tracking radar, used to track the target when the main tracking radar is jammed by ECM.

A 9K33 battery comprises four 9A33B TELAR vehicles and two 9T217 transloader vehicles on BAZ-5939 chassis with reload missiles and a crane. A reload time of five minutes has been reported per TELAR.

In addition to the TELARs, each regiment is assigned a 9V914 radar collimation vehicle (initially on the BAZ-5938 chassis but more often found on the ZiL-131 truck) that assists in the alignment of the TELAR's radar systems, ensuring accurate target tracking and engagement.

Variants

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SA-N-4 launcher covered by a circular plate on the Slava-class cruiser Marshal Ustinov.
  • 9K33 "Osa" (US DoD designation SA-8A "Gecko") began development in 1960 and was introduced in 1971–1972 with four exposed 9M33 missiles per 9A33B TELAR and maximum range of 12 km (7.5 mi).
  • 4K33 "OSA-M" (NATO reporting name SA-N-4 "Gecko") was introduced in 1972 and is the naval version of the system with two 9M33M missiles on a ZIF-122 retractable rotating launcher and improved performance. It has been installed on Gepard-class frigate, Kara-class guided missile cruisers, Kiev-class VTOL cruisers and also the Kirov, Slava and Krivak classes.
  • 9K33M2 "Osa-AK" (US DoD designation SA-8B "Gecko Mod-0") with 9A33BM2 TELAR was introduced in 1975 with the new six-missile box launcher, each 9M33M2 missile being a sealed round.
  • 9K33M3 "Osa-AKM" (US DoD designation SA-8B "Gecko Mod-1") with 9A33BM3 TELAR and 9M33M3 missiles was introduced in 1980 with the maximum range extended to 15 km (9.3 mi) and maximum altitude to 12 km (40,000 ft) as explained above. Most OSA-AKM systems also feature an IFF antenna.
  • Saman and Saman-M (Russian Саман – adobe) is a development of the Osa\Osa-M system into target drones, used for testing and training with air defense systems, including SAMs.

The 9K33M3 is also able[citation needed] to use wire-guided missiles, presumably for use in an ECM-heavy environment where radio command guidance may not operate properly.

Missiles

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9M33
 
9M33M3 missile
TypeSurface-to-air missile
Place of originSoviet Union
Service history
In service1971–present
Used bySee list of present and former operator
Production history
DesignerMKB "Fakel"
Designed1960–1972
ManufacturerZnamya Truda Plant
Produced1970–1988
Variants9M33, 9M33M1, 9M33M2, 9M33M3, 9A33BM3
Specifications (9K33M3[8])
Mass170 kg (370 lb)
Length3,158 mm (10 ft 4.3 in)
Diameter209.6 mm (8 in)
WarheadFrag-HE
Warhead weight15 kg (33 lb)[7]
Detonation
mechanism
Contact and proximity
PropellantSolid propellant rocket motor
Operational
range
15 kilometres (9.3 mi)
Flight altitude12,000 metres (39,000 ft)
Boost time2 s boost, then 15 s sustain
Maximum speed 1020 m/s (Mach 2.9)
Guidance
system
RF CLOS
Steering
system
dual-thrust rocket motor
Accuracy5 m
Launch
platform
9P35M2

Engagement range for early versions is approximately 2–9 km (1.3–5.6 mi) with engagement altitudes of between 50 and 5,000 m (164–16,400 ft). The 9M33M2 "Osa-A" missile extends the ranges to 1.5–10 km (1–6.2 mi) and engagement altitudes to 25–5,000 m (82–16,400 ft). The 9M33M3 missile greatly enhances the altitude engagement envelope to 10–12,000 m (33–42,500 ft), and are able to travel further (about 15 km/9 mi). However, the system is unable to engage targets at longer ranges, due to other factors such as the limitations of the radar tracking of the missiles. The system is designed for use primarily against jet aircraft and helicopters in any weather.

The 9M33 missiles are 3.158 m (10.3 ft) long, weigh 126 kg (278 lb) and use command guidance. A backup low-light optical tracking system is available for heavy ECM environments. The latest 9M33M3 missiles have an increased total weight of 170 kg (375 lb) in order to provide extended range coverage and larger warhead. Propulsion is provided by a dual-thrust solid fuel rocket motor. Both versions feature a missile speed of around Mach 2.4 (peaking at around Mach 3) for a maximum target engagement speed of around Mach 1.4 for the original 9M33 missile and Mach 1.6 for the 9M33M2\M3 missiles. The warhead for 9M33/M2 versions weighs 19 kg (42 lb), increased to 40 kg (88 lb) in the M3 version to improve performance against helicopters. All versions have impact and proximity fuzes.

Each TELAR is able to launch and guide two missiles against one target simultaneously. Kill probability is quoted as 0.35–0.85 for the Osa and 0.55–0.85 for the Osa-AK and Osa-AKM (presumably depending upon target aspect, speed, maneuverability and radar cross section). Reaction time (from target detection to launch) is around 26 seconds. Preparation time for engagements from transit is around 4 minutes and missile reloading takes around 5 minutes. Each battery of four TELARs is usually accompanied by two reload vehicles carrying 18 missiles in sets of three, with a crane mounted on the reload vehicles to assist in moving the missiles.

When launched, the booster motor burns for two seconds, permitting the radar to gather and control it at very short ranges (about 1.6 km). The sustainer motor burns for 15 seconds, bringing the missile to a top speed of about Mach 2. Once launched, the missile is command-guided for the whole flight, and the warhead is detonated by its proximity fuze or possibly command. The warhead is said to have a lethal radius of 5 m at low altitude against an F-4 Phantom II size target. [citation needed]

Radars

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P-40 'Long Track' radar set
  • 1S51M3 ("Land Roll") – C band target acquisition radar, H band conical scan target tracking radar and two J band pulse mode fire control radars (range 35 km/22 mi for acquisition, 30 km/19 mi for tracking and 25 km/16 mi for guidance). Mounted on the TELAR.
  • P-40 ("Long Track") – E band early warning radar (also used by 2K11 Krug and 2K12 Kub, range 175 km/108 mi), mounted on a tracked vehicle (a modified AT-T).
  • P-15 ("Flat Face A") or P-19 ("Flat Face B") or P-15M(2) ("Squat Eye") – 380 kW C band target acquisition radar (also used by the S-125 Neva/Pechora and 2K12 Kub, range 250 km/155 mi), mounted on a ZiL-131 truck.
  • PRV-9 or PRV-16 ("Thin Skin") – E band height finding radar (also used by 2K11 Krug and 2K12 Kub, range 240 km/148 mi), mounted on a KrAZ-255B truck.

Deployment and operational history

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Produced by the Soviet Union/Russia, the system was exported to many countries, including Cuba, Greece (from the former East Germany), Poland, Syria, Ecuador and Iraq.

During the 1982 Lebanon war in which Syrian air defenses were obliterated by a massive air campaign against Syrian SAM sites in the Beqaa valley, the Syrians deployed Osas. An F-4 Phantom in a SEAD mission was shot down on 24 July 1982 by an Osa system. The WSO (back seater), Aharon Katz was killed, while the pilot, Gil Fogel, survived and was held captive by the Syrians for two years.[9]

In the late 1980s, Cuba deployed several 9K33 Osa units in southern Angola, which posed a significant threat to South African air superiority at shorter ranges.[10] The South African 61 Mechanised Battalion Group captured an intact 9K33 Osa anti-aircraft missile system on 3 October 1987 during the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. This was the first time that such a system had fallen into possession of non-Warsaw Pact forces, giving Western intelligence agencies an opportunity to examine an important Soviet-bloc weapon system.[11]

Iraq fielded Osa systems during the 1991 Gulf War. The Russians claimed that it was the most effective system alongside the ZSU-23-4 Shilka at shooting down Tomahawk cruise missiles, with several downings credited to hits from Osa weapons.[12]

The system also saw use in the 2008 Russo-Georgian War by both the Georgian and Russian militaries.

Libya deployed 9K33 Osa, with some destroyed during the 2011 Libyan Civil War by NATO airstrikes.[13]

Yemeni Civil War

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On 29 November 2019, Russian sources speculated a Soviet-made 9K33 Osa fired by Houthi forces shot down a Saudi Arabian Army Aviation AH-64 Apache in Yemen.[14][15] Neither Yemen nor Iran had any 9K33 Osa in their armed forces, while known Houthi-operated systems are based on the Soviet-made 2K12 Kub surface-to-air missile system which employs a two-stage rocket engine, and the air-to-air missiles R-73 and R-27T which both have a single-stage rocket engine.[16]

2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict

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The Armenian Air Defense extensively employed 9K33 Osa missile systems during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. During the opening days of the war, several videos released by the Azerbaijani military showed several Armenian 9K33 Osa and 9K35 Strela-10 vehicles destroyed by Bayraktar TB2 armed drones,[17][18] with a number of them destroyed in the following weeks when found on the battlefield.[19] Twelve 9K33 Osa missile systems of Armenian Army were destroyed during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict by Azerbaijani Bayraktar TB2s.[20] On 4 October 2020, an Azerbaijani Air force Sukhoi Su-25 aircraft was shot down by Armenian forces, probably by a 9K33 Osa while targeting Armenian positions in Fuzuli. The pilot, Colonel Zaur Nudiraliyev, died in the crash. Azerbaijani officials acknowledged the loss in December 2020,[21][22] with the 9K33 Osa vehicle possibly using passive detection and shoot and scoot tactics to survive the Azerbaijani suppression of air defenses (SEAD) missions.[23]

Russo-Ukrainian War

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Ukrainian 9K33 Osa launcher destroyed during the 2022 Russian invasion.

Both Russia and Ukraine have 9K33 Osa systems in their inventory.

On 30 March 2019, during the war in Donbas, the Ukrainian Joint Forces reported destruction of an Osa-AKM surface-to-air missile system along with a Zhitel R330Zh automatic jamming system.[24]

For the main phase of hostilities starting in spring 2022, and as of 20 September 2023, 15 losses of 9K33s by Russia are documented with photos or video. Of these, 8 were destroyed, 2 were damaged, 1 was abandoned, and 4 were captured by the Ukrainians.[25]

On 23 March 2022, following the Russian invasion, The Washington Post reported that the United States was sending additional Osa systems to Ukraine.[26]

Command post

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PPRU-M1 (PPRU-M1-2) is a mobile command center for a mixed grouping of air defense forces, including 9K33 Osa, and Tor missile system, 2K22 Tunguska, 9K35 Strela-10 and 9K38 Igla.[27]

Upgrades

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Belarus

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T38 Stilet
  • 9K33-1T "Osa-1T" was developed by UE "Tetraedr" from Belarus. A SAM system comprises combat assets and technical support means, including:
    • 9А33-1Т TELAR or "Combat Vehicle" (CV), based on the original BAZ-5937 (or the new MZKT-69222) and equipped with a new day/night camera system OES-1T instead of the original day-only 9Sh33 or 9Sh38-2 "Karat";
    • 9M33M2 or M3 SAMs, or the new 9M33M3-1 with a range of 20 km;
    • 9Т217-1T Transportation and Loading Vehicle (TLV);
    • 9V210-1T Maintenance Vehicle (MV);
    • 9V214-1T Alignment Vehicle (AV);
    • 9V242-1T Automatic Mobile Check-up and Testing Station (AKIPS) and
    • 9F16M2 Ground Equipment Kit (GEK).[28][29][30]
  • T38 "Stilet" is a further development of Osa-1T. Main components are the T381 TELAR on MZKT-69222 chassis and the new T382 missile. Maximum range of targets' destruction 20 km, minimal RCS of targets detected 0.02 m2.[31]

Poland

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  • Osa-AKM-P1 "Żądło" (export name SA-8P Sting) is a Polish upgrade of 9K33M2 "Osa-AK" and 9K33M3 "Osa-AKM". Probably 32 of the 64 systems purchased from the Soviet Union have been upgraded. An upgraded 9A33BM3-P1 TELAR was displayed at the MSPO 2004 exhibition in Kielce, Poland. The upgraded vehicle is fitted with the SIC 12/TA passive detection and identification system as well as the ISZ-01 IFF system.[32][33]

In 2019, Poland began modification of the whole environment of the Osa system. Those works has been commissioned to WZU Grudziądz. The total cost is about €40-50 million.[34][35][36][37]

Operators

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Operators
  Current
  Former
 
Armenian 9K33 Osa missiles during a military parade in Yerevan
 
Romanian 9K33 Osa missile launch at the Capu Midia firing range.

Current operators

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Indian 9K33 Osa missile system in Delhi during a military parade

Former operators

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References

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  • Cullen, Tony; Foss, Christopher F., eds. (1992). Jane's Land-Based Air Defence: 1992-93 (PDF) (5th ed.). Surrey: Jane's Information Group. ISBN 978-0-7106-0979-3. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  • Federation of American Scientists page Archived 19 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  • International Institute for Strategic Studies (13 February 2024). The Military Balance 2024. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-040-05115-3.
  • Astronautix.com Archived 12 February 2005 at the Wayback Machine
  • O'Halloran, James C.; Foss, Christopher F., eds. (2002). Jane's Land-Based Air Defense 2002-2003 (15th ed.). Janes Information Group. ISBN 978-0-7106-2437-6.
  • ROSOBORONEXPORT Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine

Notes

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  1. ^ "Orbiter-3 downed in Artsakh hit with OSA AKM modernized in Armenia". lragir.am. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
  2. ^ Visegrád 24 [@visegrad24] (1 March 2022). "Ukrainian business owners are doing what they can to help the Ukrainian Army.
    The owner of a transport company decided to load 2 abandoned Russian 9K33 Osa SAM systems on to a truck and transport them to a Ukrainian Army base"     (Tweet). Archived from the original on 1 March 2022 – via Twitter.    {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ "Прочие с долевым участием". www.kupol.ru. Archived from the original on 6 December 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  4. ^ "Зенитный ракетный комплекс "Оса"". Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g O'Halloran & Foss 2002, p. 145.
  6. ^ "Designations of Soviet and Russian Military Aircraft and Missiles". Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  7. ^ O'Halloran & Foss 2002, pp. 144−145.
  8. ^ "9K33M3 Osa-AKM". Archived from the original on 19 February 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2008..
  9. ^ McCarthy, Don (14 November 2013). The Sword of David: The Israeli Air Force at War. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-78159-290-8.
  10. ^ George, Edward in: The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965–1991, Frank Cass, London, New York, 2005, ISBN 0-415-35015-8, p. 236-237
  11. ^ Turton, A.R. 2010. Shaking Hands with Billy. Durban: Just Done Publications.
  12. ^ a b O'Halloran & Foss 2002, p. 143.
  13. ^ "U.S. aviators rescued; Gadhafi remains defiant". CNN. 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  14. ^ "Homepage – Infinite Scroll | MBS News". Archived from the original on 21 June 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  15. ^ "Houthi Rebels Claim To Have Shot Down Saudi Apache Gunship And Wing Loong UAV in Yemen". 2 December 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  16. ^ "Houthis reveal 2 new air defense systems". debriefer.net. 25 August 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  17. ^ "Azerbaijan used TB2 drone to destroy twelve 9K33 Osa short-range anti-aircraft systems of Armenia". 27 September 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  18. ^ Newdick, Joseph Trevithick and Thomas (28 September 2020). "Everything We Know About The Fighting That Has Erupted Between Armenia And Azerbaijan". The Drive. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  19. ^ "Azerbaijan destroys another "Osa" anti-aircraft missile system of Armenian troops (VIDEO)". News.az. 30 October 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  20. ^ GDC (27 September 2020). "Azerbaijan used TB2 drone to destroy twelve 9K33 Osa short-range anti-aircraft systems of Armenia". Global Defense Corp. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  21. ^ "Əsir düşməmək üçün "Su-25" döyüş təyyarəsini düşmən səngərinə çırpan şəhid polkovnik Zaur Nudirəliyev VİDEO" (in Azerbaijani). 27 December 2020.
  22. ^ "Armenian air defenses shot down Azerbaijani Su-25 during Karabakh conflict, pilot was killed: media". Al-Masdar News. 27 December 2020. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  23. ^ "Combat missions of the Azerbaijani Air Force in the Second Karabakh War". 27 December 2020.
  24. ^ "Escalation in Donbas: One Ukrainian soldier killed, four wounded amid 19 enemy attacks in past day". Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  25. ^ Oryx. "Attack On Europe: Documenting Russian Equipment Losses During The Russian Invasion Of Ukraine". Oryx. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  26. ^ "US sending soviet air defence systems to Ukraine". 23 March 2022.
  27. ^ "Зенитные ракетные системы и комплексы" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  28. ^ "933-1 SA-1 Short Range Air Defence System". Archived from the original on 26 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  29. ^ Gyürösi, Miroslav (January 2009). "Tetraedr reveals three contracts for Osa-1T" (PDF). Janes. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
  30. ^ Gyürösi, Miroslav (February 2006). "Osa-1T upgrade boosts combat capability" (PDF). Janes. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
  31. ^ "T38 STILET Short Range Air Defence System". Archived from the original on 26 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  32. ^ "Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis: IHS Jane's – IHS". Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  33. ^ "Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis: IHS Jane's – IHS". Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  34. ^ "Usługi - 153124-2019 - TED Tenders Electronic Daily". ted.europa.eu. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  35. ^ "Usługi - 158283-2019 - TED Tenders Electronic Daily". ted.europa.eu. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  36. ^ "Usługi - 155907-2019 - TED Tenders Electronic Daily". ted.europa.eu. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  37. ^ "Usługi - 172966-2018 - TED Tenders Electronic Daily". ted.europa.eu. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  38. ^ IISS 2024, p. 472.
  39. ^ IISS 2024, p. 179.
  40. ^ IISS 2024, p. 180.
  41. ^ IISS 2024, p. 183.
  42. ^ IISS 2024, p. 77.
  43. ^ IISS 2024, p. 428.
  44. ^ IISS 2024, p. 432.
  45. ^ IISS 2024, p. 185.
  46. ^ IISS 2024, p. 100.
  47. ^ Saballa, Joe. "Greece Picks Armenia Over Ukraine to Receive Obsolete Air Defense Systems". thedefensepost.com. The Defence Post. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  48. ^ IISS 2024, p. 267.
  49. ^ IISS 2024, p. 125.
  50. ^ Sabak, Julius (12 October 2022). "Ukraina: Polskie systemy rakietowe postrachem dronów Shahed-136 [KOMENTARZ]". defence24.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  51. ^ IISS 2024, p. 131.
  52. ^ IISS 2024, pp. 193, 199.
  53. ^ IISS 2024, p. 521.
  54. ^ IISS 2024, p. 386.
  55. ^ IISS 2024, p. 209.
  56. ^ IISS 2024, p. 212.
  57. ^ Newdick, Thomas; Rogoway, Tyler (19 April 2023). "What Could Happen If Ukraine's Stock Of Soviet SAMs Runs Dry". The War Zone. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  58. ^ "Armenian separatists start surrendering weapons in Karabakh". Militarnyi. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
  59. ^ a b c d Cullen & Foss 1992, p. 134.
  60. ^ "Arms transfer database". SIPRI. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  61. ^ "SIPRI Arms Transfers Database to Iraq, 1970-2004". Archived from the original on 12 May 2007. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  62. ^ Najib, Mohammed (27 October 2017). "Jordan to sell Osa SAMs". Jane's. Archived from the original on 4 November 2017.
  63. ^ Mitzer, Stijn; Oliemans, Joost (2 October 2021). "Armenia's Last Deterrent: The Buk-M1-2 SAM System". Oryx Blog.
  64. ^ Mitzer, Stijn; Oliemans, Joost (22 December 2020). "The Forgotten Deterrent: Kuwait's Luna-M 'FROG-7' Artillery Rockets". Oryx Blog.
  65. ^ Institute for Strategic Studies (4 March 2011). The military balance, 2011. London: Routledge. p. 321. ISBN 978-1-85743-606-8.
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