Wikipedia

Tesla Model S

(Redirected from Tesla WhiteStar)
"Model S" redirects here. For the fighter aircraft, see Curtiss Model S.

The Tesla Model S is a battery-electric, four-door full-size car that has been produced by the American automaker Tesla since 2012. As Tesla's longest-produced model and second vehicle, the Model S is frequently regarded as one of the most significant electric cars in the industry.

Tesla Model S
A front-three quarter view of a red Model S
Overview
ManufacturerTesla, Inc.
ProductionJune 2012 – present
Model years2013–present
Assembly
DesignerFranz von Holzhausen
Body and chassis
ClassFull-size car
Body style4-door liftback sedan
Layout
ChassisUnibody
RelatedTesla Model X
Powertrain
Electric motor3-phase alternating current induction motor
TransmissionSingle-speed reduction gear
Battery40–100 kWh lithium-ion battery
Electric range208–405 mi (335–652 km)
Dimensions
Wheelbase116.5 in (2,960 mm)[1]
Length196.1–197.7 in (4,980–5,021 mm)[2][3]
Width77.3 in (1,960 mm)[1][note 1]
Height56.5 in (1,440 mm)[1]
Curb weight4,323–4,960 lb (1,961–2,250 kg)[4]

Tesla started developing the Model S in c. 2007 under the codename "WhiteStar". Initially, Henrik Fisker—known for his work with Aston Martin—was appointed as the lead designer for the WhiteStar project, but after a dispute with the company's chief executive officer, Fisker was replaced by Franz von Holzhausen. By 2008, von Holzhausen had designed approximately 95 percent of the production Model S's exterior. Tesla unveiled a prototype of the vehicle in March 2009, in Hawthorne, California. To produce the Model S, Tesla acquired a facility in Fremont, California, from Toyota, which had previously been used by both Toyota and General Motors. Official series manufacture of the Model S began in Fremont, in June 2012.

All versions of the Model S come equipped with a single-speed transmission and an alternating current induction motor. Constructed mostly of the aluminium, the car shares about 30 percent of its components with the Model X—a crossover SUV that was introduced in 2015. Over the course of its production, the Model S has undergone several updates, the most prominent ones occurring in 2016 and 2021. These updates typically include modifications to the motor, such as changes to horsepower or torque, as well as revised exterior elements and refreshed interior features. Tesla carried out the final assembly for European markets at its facilities in Tilburg, the Netherlands, between 2013 and 2021.

In 2015 and 2016, the Model S was the world's best-selling plug-in electric vehicle until it was surpassed by the Model 3. The Model S has been the subject of multiple fires, the first occurring in Kent, Washington, in October 2013. The car has earned numerous accolades, including being named one of the "Best 25 Inventions of the Year 2012" by Time and receiving the "Tech Car of the Year for 2012" award from CNET. The Model S has received mixed reviews from car critics: The Daily Telegraph described the Model S as a "car that changed the world",[5] but Road & Track called it "perhaps one of the worst [cars in the world]."[6]

Development

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In January 2007, Tesla, Inc. opened a facility in Michigan, employing sixty people to work on new projects, including a four-door sedan.[7] Beginning development under the codename "WhiteStar",[8] Tesla initially planned for the car to have two powertrain options. The first would be a battery-electric version with an all-electric range of 200 miles (320 km). The second was to be a range-extending vehicle, capable of traveling between 40 and 50 miles (64 and 80 km) on electric power before a small gasoline engine would recharge its batteries and power the vehicle, giving it a total range of 400 miles (640 km). However, at the GoingGreen conference in September 2008, Elon Musk—the chief executive officer of Tesla[9]—announced that the company would exclusively produce battery-electric vehicles.[10]

In 2007, Musk appointed Henrik Fisker, known for his work with Aston Martin,[11][12] as the lead designer of the WhiteStar project.[13][14][15] The company requested that he design a "sleek, four-door sedan" priced from $50,000 to $70,000, and that it be ready between late 2009 and early 2010.[16] Fisker owned a design studio in Orange County, California, which the Tesla employees frequently visited to view his designs. However, their reactions were generally negative; Ron Lloyd, the vice president of the WhiteStar project, described Fisker's designs as "terrible [...] some of the early styles were like a giant egg".[16] When Musk rejected his designs, Fisker attributed the decision to the project's physical constraints, saying, "they wouldn't let me make the car sexy".[17] Shortly after the meetings, Fisker started his own company[18] and debuted the Fisker Karma in 2008, at the North American International Auto Show.[19][20] Musk subsequently filed a lawsuit against Fisker, accusing him of stealing Tesla's design ideas and using the $875,000 to launch his own company.[18][21] Fisker ultimately won the lawsuit, and an arbitrator ordered Tesla to reimburse Fisker's legal fees and declared Tesla's claims to be without merit.[18]

 
Dispute between Musk and Fisker arose after the latter started his own company and began producing the Karma (pictured).

A small team of Tesla engineers went to a Mercedes-Benz car dealership where they test-drove a CLS-Class and an E-Class. Both cars shared a chassis, and the engineers assessed every part of the vehicles, evaluating their positives and negatives. They ultimately preferred the CLS's styling and used it as the baseline for the Model S. After purchasing a CLS, they disassembled it, modified the Roadster's battery pack, cut out the CLS's floor, and integrated it with the battery pack. They subsequently put all of its electronics and systems in the car's trunk and replaced the interior. After three months of development, the engineers completed a battery-electric version of the CLS. Tesla frequently tested the car on public roads; it had 120 miles (190 km) of all-electric range per charge and weighed more than the Roadster.[22]

In August 2008, Musk appointed Franz von Holzhausen as the project's lead designer.[23][24][25] Von Holzhausen reviewed Fisker's sketches and clay models but was unimpressed with what he saw, stating that "it was clear [...] that the people [who] had been working on this were novices". To save money, Tesla established its design center within the SpaceX factory. As von Holzhausen began designing the exterior of the Model S, Tesla engineers initiated a project to construct another electric CLS. They stripped it to its core, removed the body structure, and extended the wheelbase by four inches (10 cm) to align with early Model S specifications. Within approximately three months, von Holzhausen had designed 95 percent of the production Model S's exterior, and the engineers had begun building a prototype around the design.[25] Given the battery pack's substantial weight, Musk and the team began efforts to minimize the weight of other components. To address this issue, Musk opted to use aluminum instead of steel. Musk stated that the non-battery-pack portion of the vehicle must be lighter than equivalent gasoline vehicles, and the decision to construct it entirely from aluminum was clear. He noted that the primary challenge was that if aluminum were not used in its construction, the car's performance would be compromised.[26] To accelerate the development of the Model S, one group of engineers worked during the day, while another arrived at 9 p.m. and worked through the night, both operating within a 3,000 square feet (280 m2) tent in the SpaceX factory.[27]

 
The Model S prototype at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show

Tesla debuted a prototype version of the Model S in Hawthorne, California, on March 26, 2009.[28][29][30] Tesla initially intended to manufacture the Model S in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and later in San Jose, California, but later withdrew from both plans.[31][32] In 1984, the American automaker General Motors (GM) and the Japanese automaker Toyota partnered to form New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc., on the site of a former GM assembly plant in Fremont, California.[33][34][35] The facility produced numerous vehicles, including the Chevrolet Nova and the Toyota Corolla.[36][37][38] After the Great Recession, GM found itself trying to recover from bankruptcy. It decided to abandon the facility in 2009, with Toyota soon following.[39][40] However, a month after the last car—a Corolla—rolled off the manufacturing line in April 2010, Toyota and Tesla announced a partnership and the transfer of the factory. Tesla agreed to purchase a significant portion of the facility for US$42 million, while Toyota invested US$50 million in Tesla for a 2.5 percent stake in the company.[35][41]

During the early 2010s, Musk expanded the engineering teams for the Model S, while von Holzhausen grew the design teams in Los Angeles. The engineers operated in a lab with approximately forty-five personnel. The "alpha" version of the Model S, featuring newly stamped body parts from the Fremont factory, a revamped battery pack, and improved power electronics, was completed in the basement of an office in Palo Alto, California. About twelve of these cars were produced; some were sent to suppliers such as Bosch, while others were preserved for testing and design alterations.[42] On June 22, 2012, Tesla invited its employees, select customers, and the press to watch the first production Model S roll off the manufacturing line in Fremont.[43][44][45] The car's launch event occurred in a section of the facility where the cars are completed.[46]

Design

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The Model S (left) and Model X (right) share a platform and 30 percent of their parts.

The body and the chassis of the Model S are made mostly of aluminum.[47][48][49] The Model S shares its platform and thirty percent of its parts with the Model X,[50][51] a mid-size luxury crossover SUV that was introduced in 2015.[52][53][54] The Model S is a full-size sedan with four doors[55][56][57] and five seats.[58][59] The company claimed a drag coefficient of Cd=0.24,[60] the lowest of any production car at release.[61] This claim was independently verified by the magazine Car and Driver in the middle of 2014, confirming the drag coefficient as Cd=0.24.[62] The vehicle's drag coefficient was improved by a solid front fascia instead of a grille, retractable door handles, and a flat underbody with no exhaust pipes to disrupt the airflow.[49] The Model S's battery pack is its heaviest component[63][64] and is located inside of the car's floor.[65][66] The battery pack consists of thousands of identical cylindrical 18650 battery cells, each measuring 18 millimeters (0.71 in) in diameter and 65 millimeters (2.6 in) in height.[67][68] These cells feature a graphite/silicon anode,[69] and a nickel-cobalt-aluminum cathode.[70][71] The Model S has a center of gravity height of 18 inches (460 mm),[72][73] reducing the risk of rollovers.[74][75][76] Since the heavier components of the drivetrain are positioned behind the rear axle's centerline, the Model S has a weight distribution of 46 percent at the front and 54 percent at the rear.[77] Each Model S has a single-speed reduction gear transmission.[78]

According to Lee Hutchinson of the news website Ars Technica, the Model S's "almond-shaped headlights and prominent nosecone conjure images of Maserati, while the rear half has a distinct Aston Martin DBS flavor, [and] the taillights and rear evoke the Jaguar XF".[1] A cast aluminum cross-member attached to the vehicle's body structure supports the front suspension and electrically assisted rack-and-pinion steering system. At the rear, a cast subframe is connected to the body using four rubber-isolated mounts to reduce vibrations.[49] The front suspension features a double control arm design, while the rear suspension uses a multi-link arrangement, each with an air spring for improved ride comfort.[49][79] This chassis also features disc brake components produced by Brembo.[49][80] Since the Model S lacks a front engine, Tesla implemented a "frunk"—a portmanteau of "front" and "trunk"—which has 5.3 cubic feet (150 L) of storage.[1][81][82] The car's rear trunk possesses 26.6 cubic feet (750 L) of storage with the rear seats upright and 58.1 cubic feet (1,650 L) when the seats are folded down.[83][84] Initially, the seats and steering wheel of the Model S were made exclusively of leather. However, in 2017, following a request from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals to become the first cruelty-free automaker, Tesla switched to synthetic leather.[85][86]

Models and updates

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2012–2016: Initial years

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The pre-facelift Model S

Tesla allocated its initial 1,000 Model S units to the "Signature" limited edition configurations.[87][88][89] The AC induction motor of the base Signature model generates a power output of 270 kW (362 hp) and a torque output of 439 newton-meters (324 lb⋅ft),[90][91] sufficient to give the car a 0–60 mph (97 km/h) time of 5.6 seconds and a top speed of 125 mph (201 km/h).[90][92] The Signature Performance's motor produces 310 kW (416 hp) and 601 newton-meters (443 lb⋅ft), giving it a 0–60 mph (97 km/h) time of 4.6 seconds and a top speed of 134 mph (216 km/h).[93][94] Both models incorporate an 85 kilowatt-hour (kWh) lithium-ion battery,[94][95] and have an all-electric range of about 265 miles (426 km).[88][90][94]

Beginning in 2012, three battery pack configurations of the Model S were offered as 2013 model year[note 2] vehicles.[97] Initially, a 40 kWh lithium-ion model was planned as the entry-level version, but Tesla announced in 2013 that this version would not be produced.[98] The motor of this version was to produce a power output of 175 kilowatts (235 hp) and a torque of 420 newton-meters (310 lb⋅ft), giving it a 0–60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration time of 6.5 seconds and a maximum speed of 110 mph (180 km/h).[99][100][101] Instead, a more powerful model with a 60 kWh model, was introduced to substitute the 40 kWh model.[99] Its motor generates 225 kilowatts (302 hp) and 430 newton-meters (317 lb⋅ft),[102] providing it with a 0–60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration of 5.5 seconds, with a maximum speed of 121 mph (195 km/h) and an all-electric range of 208 miles (335 km).[103] Two versions of the 85 kWh model were created: one with specifications similar to the aforementioned Signature model, and a performance version, the "P85", with specifications akin to the Signature Performance.[101][77]

In 2014, Tesla discontinued the P85, replacing it with the P85D.[104][105][106] Tesla introduced a front motor in the P85D, in addition to the existing rear motor used in previous models. This configuration powers both the front and rear wheels, resulting in an all-wheel drive powertrain ("D" stands for "dual").[107][108] The two motors produce a combined output of 515 kilowatts (691 hp) and 931 newton-meters (687 lb⋅ft), enabling the P85D to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 3.2 seconds and reach a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h), with an all-electric range of 275 miles (443 km).[109][110] Replacing the 60 kWh model,[111][112] the 70D was introduced as a 2015 model year vehicle. It features dual motors that produce a combined output of 383 kilowatts (514 hp) and 387 newton-meters (285 lb⋅ft), allowing it to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 5.2 seconds, with a maximum speed of 140 mph (230 km/h) and an all-electric range of 240 miles (390 km).[113][114][115] A single-motor version of the 70 kWh model was also produced, with an output of 235 kilowatts (315 hp) and 325 newton-meters (240 lb⋅ft), allowing it to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 5.2 seconds, with a maximum speed of 140 mph (230 km/h) and an all-electric range of 210 miles (340 km).[115]

Tesla launched the standard 90D and the performance P90D to succeed the 85 kWh model and the P85D, respectively.[106][116][117] The 90D's motor produces 311 kilowatts (417 hp) and 658 newton-meters (485 lb⋅ft),[118][119] providing a 0–60 mph (97 km/h) time of 4.2 seconds and a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h), with an all-electric range of 288 miles (463 km).[119][120] The P90D's dual motors generate a combined output of 568 kilowatts (762 hp) and 967 newton-meters (713 lb⋅ft),[121][122] sufficient to give the car a 0–60 mph (97 km/h) time of 2.8 seconds, a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h), and an all-electric range of 268 miles (431 km).[122][123][124]

2016–2019: First major update

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The Model S and its prominently revised front fascia
 
Rear view

In April 2016, Tesla implemented a facelift for the Model S, releasing them as 2017 model year vehicles.[125][126] Its most prominent update lies in its front fascia, where the previous contrasting-colored grille has been replaced by a continuation of the body, leaving only a thin gap between the leading edge of the hood and the bumper, which houses the Tesla logo.[127][128] The updated model also includes restyled, full-LED adaptive headlights that turn with the car to enhance visibility at night.[127]

That same year, Tesla reintroduced the 60 kWh model and introduced an all-wheel-drive version, the 60D.[129][130] The former produces 235 kilowatts (315 hp) and 325 newton-meters (240 lb⋅ft), allowing it to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in five seconds, with a maximum speed of 130 mph (210 km/h) and an all-electric range of 210 miles (340 km).[131][132][133] The latter has dual motors that produce 242 kilowatts (324 hp) and 430 newton-meters (317 lb⋅ft), providing a 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration of 5.2 seconds, with a maximum speed of 130 mph (210 km/h) and an all-electric range of 253 miles (407 km).[134] Customers also had the option to upgrade the battery capacity to 75 kWh through an over-the-air update, extending the range by an additional 40 miles (64 km) of range.[131] In March 2017, Tesla discontinued the 60 kWh model to distinguish its premium cars from the more cost-effective options, making the 75 kWh model the new entry-level offering.[135][136]

In late 2016, Tesla introduced the P100D as a replacement for the P90D.[137] The P100D's motors generate a combined output 510 kilowatts (680 hp) and 1,072 newton-meters (791 lb⋅ft), allowing it to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 2.8 seconds, with a maximum speed of 155 mph (249 km/h) and an all-electric range of 315 miles (507 km).[138][139][140] In early 2017, Tesla introduced the 100D.[141] Its dual motors deliver 360 kilowatts (483 hp) and 660 newton-meters (487 lb⋅ft), sufficient to give the car a zero to 60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration of 3.9 seconds and a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h). It has an all-electric range of 335 miles (539 km).[142][143] Midway through 2017, Tesla discontinued the 90D.[144] Tesla subsequently ended production of the rear-wheel drive 75 kWh model in late 2017.[145] In 2019, Tesla also phased out the 75D, 100D, and P100D variants as part of the company's shift towards a revamped model range.[146][147]

2019–present: Simplified naming scheme

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The Model S refreshed for 2021

In favor of a more streamlined lineup, in 2019, the previous 75D, 100D, and P100D models were replaced with the Standard Range, Long Range, and Performance models, respectively;[147] however, the Standard Range model was discontinued later that year.[148] The Model S Long Range, equipped with a 100 kWh battery, has dual motors that generate a total output of 350 kilowatts (469 hp) and 730 newton-meters (540 lb⋅ft), allowing the Long Range to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 3.7 seconds and reach a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h), with an all-electric range of about 375 miles (604 km).[149][150] The Performance model also has a 100 kWh battery. Its dual motors produce a combined output of 562 kilowatts (754 hp) and 931 newton-meters (687 lb⋅ft), providing it with a 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration of 2.4 seconds, a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h), and an all-electric range of about 365 miles (587 km).[151] For 2020, the Long Range model was replaced with the Long Range Plus.[152] Its dual motors deliver a combined output of 311 kilowatts (417 hp) and 658 newton-meters (485 lb⋅ft), allowing it to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 3.7 seconds and reach a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h), with an all-electric range of about 400 miles (640 km).[note 3]

 
In 2024, the Model S received restyled taillights. The Plaid model is pictured.

In 2021, Tesla launched a significant update to the Model S, known internally as the "Palladium" project, which involved an overhaul of most of its components.[157] The revised Model S was revealed in January 2021.[158][159] At its debut, the updated Model S had the lowest drag coefficient of any automobile, with a value of Cd=0.208.[160][161] The updated Long Range delivers 500 kilowatts (670 hp); this allows it to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 3.2 seconds and reach a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h). It achieves an all-electric range of about 405 miles (652 km).[162] The Plaid, which features a 95 kWh battery,[163] has—in contrast to all models previous—a tri-motor, all-wheel drive layout. The trio produce a total output of 760 kilowatts (1,020 hp) and 1,050 newton-meters (770 lb⋅ft), providing the car with a 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration of 1.98 seconds and a maximum speed of 200 mph (320 km/h), with an all-electric range of 390 miles (630 km).[164][165][166] In 2023, Tesla reintroduced the Standard Range model, featuring an all-electric range of 370 miles (600 km).[167][168] In 2024, the Model S received restyled taillights.[note 4]

Technology

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Features

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Production dashboard with 12.3-inch (310 mm) main dashboard digital display (left) and central 17-inch (430 mm) touchscreen control panel (right)

The instrument panel is positioned directly before the driver and features a 12.3-inch (310 mm) liquid crystal display electronic instrument cluster.[58][170] The infotainment control touchscreen features a 17-inch (430 mm) multi-touch display[171] divided into four sections. The top section shows status icons and offers quick access to features like charging, HomeLink, Driver Profiles, vehicle information, and Bluetooth. Below that, the second section provides access to various apps, such as Media, Navigation, Energy, Web, Camera, and Phone. The central viewing area displays two active apps, split into upper and lower areas, with most apps expandable to fill the entire screen. The bottom section contains controls and settings for the vehicle, including doors, locks, lights, temperature settings, and a secondary volume control.[172]

Originally, the Model S's touchscreen was powered by a Nvidia Tegra 3 3D Visual Computing Module (VCM),[173][174] with a separate Nvidia Tegra 2 VCM handling the instrument cluster.[175] Around 2018, Tesla upgraded these two Tegra System-on-a-Chip (SoC) units to a single Intel Atom-based SoC, which powered both the main touchscreen display and the instrument cluster.[176] With the Palladium refresh, Tesla further updated the system, switching to a horizontal touchscreen orientation and an AMD Ryzen-based SoC. The 2021 Model S also introduced the "yoke" steering wheel.[177]

Tesla Autopilot is an advanced driver-assistance system developed by Tesla that amounts to partial vehicle automation.[178] Released in October 2015 as a software update,[179][180] Autopilot uses cameras, Radar and ultrasound to detect road signs, lane markings, obstacles, pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, traffic lights, and other vehicles. Additionally, Autopilot includes adaptive cruise control, lane centering, auto lane changing, autoparking and many other semi-autonomous driving and parking capabilities.[181][182]

Charging

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A Model S connected to a Supercharger
See also: Tesla Supercharger

For charging outside the home, Tesla has partnered with businesses to install Tesla Wall Connectors to provide a charging network called Tesla Destination.[183] The units are provided to the businesses by Tesla for free or at a discounted price.[184] The business is responsible for the cost of electricity. Not all destination chargers are available to the public, as some businesses limit them to customers, employees, or residents only.[185] Tesla operates a network of 480-volt charging stations.[186][187]

Tesla initially planned for the Model S to allow fast battery swapping.[188][189] In 2013, the company demonstrated a battery swap operation that took about ninety seconds—roughly half the time needed to refill a gas tank.[190][191][192] While Tesla initially planned to make battery swapping widely available, they reportedly abandoned the idea due to a perceived lack of customer interest.[193] Critics have accused Tesla of exploiting California's zero-emission vehicle credit system by introducing the battery swap program without ever making it accessible to the public.[194] In 2020, Tesla announced plans to integrate the batteries into the vehicle's body to enhance strength and reduce weight and cost.[195]

Environmental impact

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Tesla's lithium-ion batteries contain small amounts of nickel and cobalt, which has been identified as having a high environmental impact due to the toxicity of their extraction and refining processes.[196] Tesla claims to recycle all returned battery packs and states that Gigafactory 1 is able to recycle a significant portion of the elements from old batteries, moving towards a "closed loop" system where old batteries are turned into new ones.[197][198]

In February 2014, the Automotive Science Group published a study assessing the life-cycle of over 1,300 automobiles across nine categories sold in North America, ranking the Model S as the best environmental performer in the 2014 full-size cars category. The study found that the increased environmental impacts of manufacturing the Model S are more than offset by its improved environmental performance during operation, using the average U.S. electricity mix in 2014. The Nissan Leaf had the smallest life-cycle environmental footprint of any 2014 model year automobile available in North America.[199]

In 2012, a study by the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) found that unless an electric vehicle is charged by solar or wind power, its CO2 emissions in the United States, similar to the Model S, are equivalent to a gasoline-powered car that gets between 34 and 115 miles per gallon (MPG), depending on the electricity source in the region. The study estimated that nearly half of Americans live in areas where an electric vehicle would produce fewer emissions than a 50 MPG hybrid.[200] A 2015 study by the UCS concluded that in U.S. regions where the Model S is popular, its 68 percent higher manufacturing emissions are offset within a few years of average driving.[201] Over their lifecycle, electric vehicles emit about half as much CO2 as comparable fossil fuel cars.[202] However, the report assumes that electric materials are recycled at rates similar to other cars and excludes the issue of battery disposal due to limited data on current recycling practices and future intentions.[201]


Sales and markets

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Model S first retail deliveries ceremony at the Tesla Factory in Fremont, California, held on June 22, 2012

U.S. deliveries began June 2012.[203] Tesla reported 520 reservations for the Model S during the first week they were available[204] and by December 2012, a total 15,000 net reservations (after deliveries and cancellations) had been received by year-end.[205]

The special edition Model S Signature model was sold out before deliveries began in June 2012, and according to Tesla all models were sold out for that year shortly after.[206][207] A total of 2,650 cars were delivered in North America in 2012.[208]

Tesla delivered 50,658 Model S/X units in 2015.[209][210] Tesla sold more than 50,000 Model S cars globally in 2016, making it the world's top selling plug-in electric that year.[211] In 2017, it became only the second EV to sell more than 200,000 units behind the Nissan Leaf.

The Model S was released in Europe in early August 2013, and the first deliveries took place in Norway, Switzerland and the Netherlands.[212] By November 2013, the Model S was on sale in 20 countries.[213] By the end of 2013, Norway and Switzerland became the company's largest per capita sales markets.[214]

Retail deliveries in China began in April 2014.[215] The right-hand-drive model was released in the UK in June 2014,[216] followed by Hong Kong in July 2014[217] and Japan in September 2014.[218] Deliveries in Australia began in December 2014.[219]

The Model S ranked as the world's second best selling plug-in electric vehicle after the Nissan Leaf.[220] About 55% of deliveries went to North America, 30% to Europe, and 15% to the Asia-Pacific market.[221]

As of June 2015, the Model S was sold in 30 countries.[222] The Model S was the world's best-selling plug-in electric car in 2015, ahead of the Nissan Leaf (about 43,000 units).[210][223]

2016–2020

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The Model S was the world's top selling plug-in car for the second year running.[224][225] As of 2018, the Model S rank fell to second place after the BAIC EC-Series city car, which sold over 78,000 units in China.[226]

The Model S continued to rank as the second most-sold electric car in history after the Nissan Leaf.[226][227][228][229] As of December 2018, cumulative global sales totaled about 263,504 units.[226][227][228][229][230]

Sales by country

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Sales/registrations by top national markets
Country Cumulative

sales

% of global

sales[a]

2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012
US[231][232][233][234][235] 163,201 55.9% 14,425[236] 29,959 26,500 29,156 25,202 16,689 18,650 2,620
Norway[237][238][239][240][241][242] 20,639 7.4% 1,181 3,633 3,712 2,051 4,039 4,040 1,983 —
Netherlands[243][244][245][246][247][248] 13,839 5.3% 5,633 2,051 1,693 1,805 1,465 1,192 —
China[249][250][251] 11,858[b] [c] [c] [c] 6,334 3,025[b] 2,499 — —
UK[252][253][254][255] 9,300[d] 2.9% 1,756 2,518 2,367 1,389 698 — —
Germany[256][257][258][259][260][261] 7,551 2.9% 1,248 2,241 1,474 1,582 815 191 —
Canada[262] 6,731 3.2% 1,675 1,466 2,010 847 638 95
Switzerland [e][263] 4,695 2.2% 1,131 1,299 1,556 496 213 —
Sweden[264][265][266][267][268] 3,788 1.4% 883 800 838 996 266 5 —
France[269][270][271][272] 3,455 1.3% 749 850 785 708 328 35 —
Denmark[273][274][275] 3,432 1.6% 46 78 2,736 460 112 —
Belgium[276][277][278][279][280] 3,358 1.3% 535 659 675 820 521 148 —
Hong Kong[281] 2,221[f] 1.0% [c] [c] 2,221 — — —
Austria[282][283][284][285] 1,835 0.9% 584 575 492 136 48 —
Australia[286][287] 1,319 0.6% [c] [c] 1,250 69[g] — — —
Italy[288][289] 662 0.3% 264 218 120 52 8 —
Global[226][227][228][229][230] 263,504 28,248[290] 50,630[227][228][229][230] 54,715[226] 50,931[224] 50,446[233][223] 31,655[220] 22,477[291] ~2,650[205]
  1. ^ Percentage of global sales by country, inception through December 2019.
  2. ^ a b Chinese market sales in 2015 only through September.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Sales figures not available
  4. ^ UK registrations at the end of June 2019 (not cumulative sales).
  5. ^ Includes registrations in Liechtenstein.
  6. ^ Hong Kong sales for 2015 only.
  7. ^ Only includes registrations in New South Wales and Victoria.

Asia/Pacific

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Model S at a quick charging CHAdeMO station in Japan[292]

The first nine Australian units were delivered in Sydney on December 9, 2014. Tesla opened its first store and service centre in St Leonards, and its first Supercharger station at Pyrmont in December 2014.[293][294]

The Model S was the top selling all-electric car in the country for the first quarter of 2015.[295]

The first Chinese deliveries took place on April 22, 2014.[215] The standard equipment was the same as the European version, with larger back seats because the car was expected to be driven by a chauffeur.[296] By mid-2018, China ranked as Tesla’s second largest market.[297] Sales began in Hong Kong in July 2014.[217]

Europe

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First European deliveries were at Tesla's Oslo store in August 2013.

European retail deliveries began in August 2013, in Norway, Switzerland and the Netherlands.[212] Europe's first delivery took place in Oslo on August 7, 2013.[298] By the end of August, Europe's first six charging stations opened, in Lyngdal, Aurland, Dombås, Gol, Sundebru and Lillehammer.[299] Sales rose most rapidly in Norway. In April 2014 the Schiphol Group announced that three companies were selected to provide all-electric taxi service in Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.[300] The Model S topped the European luxury car segment in 2015, ahead of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (14,990), the traditional leader.[301]

Sales in 2015 totaled 1,805 units,[245] and declined to 1,693 in 2016.[246] As of October 2016, combined registrations of the Model S (5,681) and the Model X (250) represented 48.6% of the 12,196 all-electric cars on Dutch roads at the end of that month.[302] The Model S was the all-time top selling all-electric car in the Netherlands with 12,394 cars registered at the end of March 2021, however it has since been overtaken by the Tesla Model 3, with 38,745 cars registered in March 2021.[303]

In the UK from 2021 to 2022, deliveries of Model S vehicles dropped significantly to almost zero.[304] In 2023, Tesla also stated that the Model S will not be sold in the UK or Ireland in right-hand drive for the 'foreseeable future'.[305] In July 2023, the Plaid model was launched in the UK, and the standard Model S was relaunched, but both are only available in left-hand drive Unlike most cars sold in the country.[306][307]

 
Model S used since 2014 for all-electric taxi service at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol


North America

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The world's first delivery took place on June 1, 2012 in California, to a Tesla board member, while formal deliveries to the public began at a large ceremony on June 22, 2013.[308]

The first Model S sedans were delivered in Canada in December 2012.[262]

Retail sales began in Mexico City in December 2015. Initially, no Supercharger stations are available in the country.[309]

 
Personalized delivery of Model S

Retail sales model

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Main article: Tesla US dealership disputes

Tesla sells its cars directly to consumers without a dealer network, as other manufacturers have done and as many states require by legislation. In support of its approach, the company fought legal and legislative battles in Ohio, New Jersey, New York and other states.[310][311] The Tesla direct sales model was permitted in 22 states as of March 2015.[312][313] In other states the Tesla salesperson is not allowed to discuss prices, and the ultimate sale must be made online.[314][315]

Safety

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Tesla has made many claims about the safety of its vehicles, encompassing vehicle structure and driver assist software.

Features

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External videos
  NHTSA Frontal crash test on YouTube
  NHTSA Side crash test on YouTube
  NHTSA Pole crash test on YouTube
  Euro NCAP crash test on YouTube
  Tesla EV Safety Training for rescuers on YouTube

In 2014, the Model S had a 5-star safety rating from both Euro NCAP and the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).[316][317] At that time, only two other cars had earned the same recognition since 2011 (when the NHTSA introduced its latest rating scheme).[318]

NHTSA[319]
Overall      
Frontal, driver      
Frontal, passenger      
Side, driver      
Side, passenger      
Side pole, driver      
Rollover       / 5.7%
Euro NCAP[320]
Overall      
Adult occupant 35.8 pts / 94%
Child occupant 45 pts / 91%
Vulnerable road users 45.9 pts / 85%
Safety assist 15.7 pts / 98%
IIHS[321][322]
Small overlap front (Driver) Acceptable
Moderate overlap frontal offset Good
Side impact (original test) Good
Roof strength Good
Roof strength (P100D) Good
Headlights Poor
Front crash prevention (Vehicle-to-Vehicle) Superior
Child seat anchors (LATCH) ease of use Marginal

Incidents

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Initial battery fire incidents

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See also: Tesla Model S fire incidents

The first widely reported fire occurred several minutes after the vehicle hit metal debris on the Washington State Route 167 highway on October 1, 2013.[323] The driver "was able to exit the highway as instructed by the onboard alert system, bring the car to a stop and depart the vehicle without injury".[324] He then contacted authorities and, while awaiting their arrival, smoke began coming out the front of the vehicle. The driver stated that he hit something while exiting the HOV lane.[323][325][326] Tesla stated that the fire was caused by the "direct impact of a large metallic object to one of the 16 battery modules", and that by design, the modules were separated by firewalls, limiting the fire to "a small section in the front of the vehicle".[323]

The module was evidently punctured by a "curved section" that fell off a truck and was recovered near the accident. Tesla stated that the debris punched a 3-inch (76 mm) diameter hole through the .25-inch (6.4 mm) armor plate under the vehicle, applying force of some 25 tons. Built-in vents directed the flames away from the vehicle so that the fire did not enter the passenger compartment. According to Tesla, the firefighters followed standard procedure; using water to extinguish the fire was correct,[327] however, puncturing the metal firewall to gain access to the fire also allowed the flames to spread to the front trunk.[324] Tesla also stated that because the battery pack contains "only about 10% of the energy contained in a gasoline tank", the effective combustion potential of a single module is only about 1% that of a conventional vehicle.[324]

NHTSA reported, "After reviewing all available data, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has not found evidence at this time that would indicate the recent battery fire involving a Tesla Model S was the result of a vehicle safety defect or noncompliance with federal safety standards."[328] The following month, the NHTSA opened a preliminary evaluation to determine "the potential risks associated with undercarriage strikes on model year 2013 Tesla Model S vehicles".[329][330] On March 28, 2014, NHTSA closed its investigation, claiming that the (new) titanium under body shield and aluminum deflector plates, along with increased ground clearance, "should reduce both the frequency of under body strikes and the resultant fire risk".[331]

Subsequent fires

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On November 6, 2013, a fire broke out after a Model S struck a tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneath the vehicle.[332] The incidents led Tesla to extend its warranty to cover fire damage and to apply a software update to increase ground clearance when operating at highway speed.[329][333]

Another fire took place in Toronto, Canada, in February 2014. The Model S was parked in a garage and was not charging when the fire started. The origin of the fire is undetermined.[334] According to Tesla "in this particular case, we don't yet know the precise cause, but have definitively determined that it did not originate in the battery, the charging system, the adapter or the electrical receptacle, as these components were untouched by the fire".[335]

Starting with vehicle bodies manufactured as of 6 March 2014, all units were outfitted with a triple underbody shield. Existing cars were retrofitted upon request or as part of routine service.[336][337]

On January 1, 2016, a 2014 Model S caught fire while supercharging unsupervised in Brokelandsheia, Norway. The vehicle was destroyed but nobody was injured.[338][339][340] The fire was slow, and the owner had time to unplug the car and retrieve possessions.[341] An investigation by the Norwegian Accident Investigation Board (AIBN) indicated that the fire originated in the car, but was otherwise inconclusive.[342] In March 2016, Tesla stated that their own investigation into the incident concluded that the fire was caused by a short circuit in the vehicle's distribution box, but that the amount of damage prevented them from determining the exact cause.[341] Tesla stated that the Supercharger detected the short circuit and deactivated, and a future Model S software update would stop the vehicle from charging if a short circuit is detected.[343]

NTSB stated that Teslas are not more prone to fires than other vehicles.[344]

Recalls

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As of December 2021, Tesla had had seven Model S recalls:[345][346][347]

  • On June 14, 2013, Tesla recalled Model S vehicles manufactured between May 10, 2013, and June 8, 2013, due to improper methods for aligning the left hand seat back striker to the bracket, which could weaken the weld between the bracket and frame.[348]
  • On January 13, 2014, Tesla recalled Model S vehicles manufactured in 2013, because the adapter, cord, or wall outlet could overheat during charging.[349]
  • On November 20, 2015, Tesla announced a voluntary recall of all of its 90,000 Model S vehicles, in order to check for a possible defect in the cars' front seat belt assemblies. The problem was raised by one customer in Europe. Tesla's resulting investigation was unable to identify a root cause for the failure, and the company decided to examine every car. Tesla reported that no accidents or injuries were related to the problem.[350][351]
  • On January 20, 2017, Tesla recalled Model S made from 2012 in January 2017 due to defective Takata airbags. Cars manufactured later (until 2017) had smaller risk.[352]
  • On April 20, 2017, Tesla issued a worldwide recall of 53,000 of the 76,000 Model S and Model X vehicles sold in 2016 due to faulty parking brakes.[353][354]
  • On March 30, 2018, all 123,000 Model S cars manufactured before April 2016 were recalled due to excessive corrosion of the bolts which secure the power steering, particularly those cars used in cold countries where roads are salted.[346]
  • In December 2021, 119,009 Model S vehicles were recalled because of the possibility of latch failure allowing front hoods to open unexpectedly.[347]

Autopilot

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The first known fatal accident when Autopilot was active occurred in Williston, Florida on May 7, 2016. In June 2016, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) opened a formal investigation into the accident, working with the Florida Highway Patrol. According to NHTSA, preliminary reports indicate the crash occurred when a tractor-trailer made a left turn in front of the Tesla at an intersection on a non-controlled access highway, and the driver and the car failed to apply the brakes.[355][356][357] NHTSA's preliminary evaluation examined the design and performance of automated driving systems, which involved an estimated 25,000 cars.[358]

According to Tesla, "neither autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit sky, so the brake was not applied." The car attempted to drive full speed under the trailer, "with the bottom of the trailer impacting the windshield of the Model S." Tesla also stated that this was Tesla's first known Autopilot-related death in over 130 million mi (209 million km) driven by its customers while Autopilot was activated. According to Tesla a fatality occurred every 94 million mi (150 million km) among all type of vehicles in the U.S.[355][356][359] In January 2017, NTSB concluded Tesla was not at fault since the driver in the crash had seven seconds to see the truck and take action; the investigation revealed that the Tesla car crash rate dropped by 40 percent under autopilot.[360][361]

NHTSA safety

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On August 19, 2013, based on NHTSA safety ratings, a Tesla press release claimed that the Model S had achieved the best safety rating of any car ever tested. Tesla stated, "NHTSA does not publish a star rating above 5, however safety levels better than 5 stars are captured in the overall Vehicle Safety Score (VSS) provided to manufacturers, where the Model S achieved a new combined record of 5.4 stars."[362][363][364][365][366] However, a few days later NHTSA rebutted Tesla's claim, explaining that the rating for the Model S was equal to any other car receiving 5-stars, and claiming that the carmaker did not follow its advertising guidelines.[367][368][369]

In July 2017, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) found that during front crash tests, the Model S safety belts let the driver's torso move too far forward, resulting in the head striking the steering wheel hard through the airbag. This problem was already pointed out in one of the IIHS's earlier tests, to which Tesla responded they would improve their safety belt design, which, according to the IIHS's latest tests, had not been done as of 2017.[needs update] The IIHS also gave the Model S the worst possible rating for its headlights.[370] The report caused Tesla to lose 6.4% of its stock value.[322]

Issues and criticism

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Range limitation

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On February 8, 2013, The New York Times published a review by John M. Broder about a trip between Washington, D.C., and Boston using Tesla's Supercharger network. At the time it included only two stations on the East Coast. Broder made a variety of critical claims about the battery's performance in cold weather and the distance between charging stations. The trip ended with the Model S carried on a flatbed truck to the Milford, Connecticut, station.[371]

Tesla responded by publishing logs of the vehicle's charge levels and driving speed that contradicted Broder's account.[372] Tesla implied that Broder's behavior forced the car to fail. Broder replied to the criticism, suggesting that the speed discrepancies may have been because the car had been equipped with 19-inch wheels rather than the specified 21-inch wheels.[373] In the midst of the controversy, a CNN reporter recreated Broder's trip without exhausting the battery. However, two differences distinguished the journeys. The weather was about 10 °F (6 °C) warmer and CNN completed the trip in one day; the Times let the car sit overnight while not plugged in.[374] A reporter from CNBC also recreated the trip in one day without incidents.[375] One week later, a group of Tesla owners recreated Broder's trip without problems.[376][377]

On February 18, 2013, The New York Times Public Editor Margaret Sullivan published an editorial stating that Broder took "casual and imprecise notes" and used poor judgment, but she maintained that the article was written in good faith. She admitted that Broder's vehicle logs were "sometimes quite misleading."[378][379][380]

In July and September 2014 tests performed by an independent German car magazine in cooperation with the TÜV (German Association for Technical Inspection) and Tesla owners seemed to reveal issues with the battery's performance. According to the magazine, Tesla did not take up the invitation to repeat the test, and seemed to refuse to offer vehicles for a second test.[381][382] A test performed by another German publication ("Die Welt") supported the findings.[383]

Power dissipation when not in use

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Older versions of the system software suffered from power drain issues when the car wasn't being used, with the batteries losing 4.5 kWh overnight (known commonly as "vampire drain").[384] System software v5.8 (v1.49.30), released December 12, 2013, reduced overnight energy loss substantially, to 1.1 kWh per night, or around 3 miles.[385]

Consumer Reports' recommendation

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In October 2015, two months after naming the Tesla 'the best car ever tested,' Consumer Reports declined to give the Tesla Model S a "recommended" designation, citing too many complaints from owners. Complaints ranged from misaligned doors and squeaky body, to total drive train failure and inoperable door handles. Tesla's shares dropped 15%, both because of the magazine's cut and because of concerns over the Tesla Model X luxury SUV.[386][387] Similarly, Edmunds.com found quality and safety issues in their long-term road test and "amassed quite the repair résumé during the last 17 months."[388] Both Edmunds and Consumer Reports reported the vehicle stalling while driving.[389][better source needed]

In their 2016 Annual Auto Reliability Survey, Consumer Reports improved the Model S rating to average reliability. The magazine raised "serious concerns about how some automakers, including Tesla, have designed, deployed, and marketed semi-autonomous technology."[390] By 2017, in the Consumer Reports Car Reliability Survey, Tesla's position on the list moved up four spots; and the predicted reliability rating for Model S reached "above average" for the first time.[391] In 2018, the annual Consumer Reports reliability survey found Tesla cars among the worst, with the brand falling six spots from 2017 and third worst among the brands surveyed.[392][393] The Model S dropped "below average" in reliability with suspension problems and other issues that included the extending door handle.[393] In 2019, the model S achieved a Consumer Reports "recommended" designation[394] due to improved reliability, with the Model S as the second-most reliable out of four ultra-luxury cars tested.

Power discrepancy

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The P85D "insane mode" was widely reported to have 691 horsepower,[395][396][397] but some owners reported 20% less power on the dynamometer in various circumstances.[398][399] As of November 2015, Tesla website showed battery-limited combined 345 kilowatts (463 hp)for P85D (397 kilowatts (532 hp) for "Ludicrous").[400][398] A lawsuit by 126 owners in Norway[401] was settled in December 2016.[402]

Power consumption

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In early March 2016, a report by Stuff magazine revealed that a test performed by VICOM, Ltd on behalf of Singapore's Land Transport Authority had found a 2014 Tesla Model S to be consuming 444 Wh/km (0.715 kW⋅h/mi),[403][404] which was greater than the 240 Wh/km (0.38 kW⋅h/mi) reported by EPA[405] and the 181 Wh/km (0.291 kW⋅h/mi) reported by Tesla.[406] As a result, a carbon surcharge was imposed on the Model S, making Singapore the only country in the world to impose an environmental surcharge on a fully electric car.[407] The Land Transport Authority justified this by stating that it had to "account for CO2 emissions during the electricity generation process" and therefore "a grid emission factor of 0.5 g/watt-hour was also applied to the electric energy consumption".[408] Tesla countered that when the energy used to extract, refine, and distribute gasoline was taken into account, the Model S produced approximately one-third the CO2 of an equivalent gasoline-powered vehicle.[406]

Later that month, the Land Transport Authority released a statement stating that they and the VICOM Emission Test Laboratory would work with Tesla engineers to determine whether the test was flawed,[409] and a Tesla statement indicated that the discussions were "positive" and that they were confident of a quick resolution.[406]

Plaid+ reservation issues

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After it was announced that Plaid+ was canceled, some reservation holders discovered their reservations had been converted into a full order for the regular Plaid version and with no refund included for their Plaid+ deposit.[410]

Awards

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The Model S has received numerous awards, including:

  • 2013 AutoGuide.com Reader's Choice Car of the Year[411]
  • 2013 World Green Car of the Year[412]
  • Automobile Magazine's 2013 Car of the Year, a unanimous decision[413]
  • CNET Tech Car of the Year for 2012[414]
  • Consumer Reports gave the Model S a score of 103 out of 100, its highest ever. The Model S broke the rating scale of Consumer Reports during its test.[415] A Consumer Reports' 2013 survey of owner satisfaction produced a score of 99 out of 100, "the highest the magazine has seen in years."[416] In 2014, the Model S topped for the second year in a row Consumer Reports survey of owner satisfaction. The Model S scored 98 out of 100.[417]
  • Consumer Reports found the Model S to be 'Best Overall' for 2014 across all 10 categories of cars, light trucks and SUVs, chosen from more than 260 vehicles the organization has recently tested. The magazine considers the Model S a "technological tour de force, while pricey, is brimming with innovation."[418] In 2015, they rated the Model S at 103 (breaking the scale).[419][420]
  • Green Car Reports' Best Car To Buy 2013[421]
  • Hagerty Greatest Car of the Decade (2010s)[422]
  • Motor Trend 2013 Car of the Year, also a unanimous decision and the first winner in the award's history to not be powered by an internal combustion engine[423]
  • Natural Resources Canada 2013 EcoENERGY for Vehicles Awards in the full-size category[424]
  • Popular Science's Auto Grand Award Winner Best of What's New list 2012[425]
  • The Telegraph included the Model S in its list of the top 10 cars that changed the world published in December 2014, and also named the electric sedan the most important car of the last 20 years.[426][427]
  • Time magazine Best 25 Inventions of the Year 2012 award.[428] In 2019, the Model S was included in Time's list of best gadgets of the 2010s.[429]
  • Yahoo! Autos 2013 Car of the Year[430]
  • American Automobile Association Green Car Guide 2015, top spot (P85D).[431] The Model S also won the 2014 AAA Green Car Guide.[432]
  • 2019 Green Car Reports Car of the Decade[433]

Records

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All of these records used hypermiling techniques such as front motor only, low speed 24 mph (39 km/h), no air conditioning and minimal use of the brakes.[434][435] These attempts were inspired by a blog written by Elon Musk about the planned range and efficiency of the Tesla Model S, offering a prize for anyone exceeding 400 miles (640 km) on a single charge, where it was estimated the 85 kWh model could do it by driving at a constant 36 mph (58 km/h) under ideal conditions.[436]

In early September 2019, a prototype ("plaid" tri motor) Model S went faster than the official record for the fastest "four-door electric sports car" at the Laguna Seca Raceway, beating a previous time held by the Tesla Model 3 Performance.[437][438]

Configuration Distance Date Team Notes
P100D 670 mi (1,080 km) August 5, 2017 Italian drivers First production electric car to exceed 620 mi (1,000 km) on a single charge.[439]
P100D 560 miles (901.2 km) June 20, 2017 Belgian drivers.[440]
85 kWh 423.5 miles (681.6 km) November 2012 David and Adam Metcalf[441][442]

See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^ Excluding side-view mirrors
  2. ^ It is common practice in the American automotive industry to introduce a model year's automobile during the previous calendar year.[96]
  3. ^ Cited to multiple sources:[153][154][155][156]
  4. ^ As of July 2024, there are no reliably sourced reports explicitly regarding the updated taillights. However, Car and Driver features an image of the facelifted taillights in its 2024 model year report,[169] while displaying the previous taillights in its 2023 report.[168]

Citations

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  2. ^ Anthony, Sebastian (January 31, 2017). "Driving the Tesla Model S through the countryside—watch out for autopilot". Ars Technica. Retrieved July 27, 2024.
  3. ^ "Tesla Model S practicality, boot size, dimensions & luggage capacity". Auto Express. February 11, 2020. Retrieved July 27, 2024.
  4. ^ Kumar, Devanshu & Dwivedi 2024, p. 36.
  5. ^ "The top 10 cars that changed the world (and one that's about to)". The Daily Telegraph. December 19, 2014. Retrieved July 27, 2024.
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  7. ^ Mara, Janis (January 27, 2007). "New electric cars spark interest all over Bay Area". East Bay Times. Retrieved July 28, 2024. Cite error: The named reference "s729" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ^ Vance 2016, p. 272.
  9. ^ Tennant, Chris; Stilgoe, Jack (2021). "The attachments of 'autonomous' vehicles". Social Studies of Science. 51 (6): 846–870. doi:10.1177/03063127211038752. ISSN 0306-3127. PMC 8586182. PMID 34396851.
  10. ^ Fessler 2019, p. 133.
  11. ^ Nast, Condé; Squatriglia, Chuck (July 2, 2010). "Henrik Fisker's 'timeless' automotive designs". WIRED. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
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  33. ^ Bunkley, Nick (June 29, 2009). "G.M. exits venture with Toyota at California plant". The New York Times. Retrieved July 29, 2024.
  34. ^ Holmes & Schaffarczyk 2013, p. 98.
  35. ^ a b Vance 2016, p. 289.
  36. ^ Roth & DiBella 2016, pp. 27, 42.
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  47. ^ Eisler 2022, p. 180.
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