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The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates

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The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates is a list of highly endangered primate species selected and published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC) Primate Specialist Group (PSG), the International Primatological Society (IPS), Global Wildlife Conservation (GWC), and Bristol Zoological Society (BZS).[1] The IUCN/SSC PSG worked with Conservation International (CI) to start the list in 2000, but in 2002, during the 19th Congress of the International Primatological Society, primatologists reviewed and debated the list, resulting in the 2002–2004 revision and the endorsement of the IPS. The publication was a joint project between the three conservation organizations until the 2012–2014 list when BZS was added as a publisher.[2] The 2018–2020 list was the first time Conservation International was not among the publishers, replaced instead by GWC. The list has been revised every two years following the biannual Congress of the IPS.[1] Starting with the 2004–2006 report, the title changed to "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates".[3] That same year, the list began to provide information about each species, including their conservation status and the threats they face in the wild.[4] The species text is written in collaboration with experts from the field, with 60 people contributing to the 2006–2008 report[5] and 85 people contributing to the 2008–2010 report.[4] The 2004–2006 and 2006–2008 reports were published in the IUCN/SSC PSG journal Primate Conservation,[3][6], since then they have been published as independent publications.[4][7][2][8][9][1]

The silky sifaka (Propithecus candidus), found only in Madagascar, has been on The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates list since its inception in 2000. Between 100 and 1,000 individuals are left in the wild.

The 25 species on the 2018–2020 list are distributed between 32 countries. The country with the most species on the list is Madagascar with five species, Indonesia, Brazil, Ghana, and Côte d'Ivoire each have three. The list is broken into four distinct regions: the island of Madagascar, the continent of Africa, the continent of Asia including the islands of Indonesia, and the Neotropics (Central and South America).[1]

The purpose of the list, according to Russell Mittermeier, the president of CI, is "to highlight those [primate species] that are most at risk, to attract the attention of the public, to stimulate national governments to do more, and especially to find the resources to implement desperately needed conservation measures."[10] Species are selected for the list based on two primary reasons: extremely small population sizes and very rapid drops in numbers. These reasons are heavily influenced by habitat loss and hunting, the two greatest threats primates face. More specifically, threats listed in the report include deforestation due to slash-and-burn agriculture, clearing for pasture or farmland, charcoal production, firewood production, illegal logging, selective logging, mining, land development, and cash crop production; forest fragmentation; small population sizes; live capture for the exotic pet trade; and hunting for bushmeat and traditional medicine.[4] Twelve species were dropped for the 2018–2020 list, Mittermeier notes this was not because their situation has improved but instead to focus attention on other species that are also have "bleak prospects for their survival.[1]

Key

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Key for column headings
Species Common and scientific name of the species, including a picture if available
Years listed Years the species has been included in the IUCN's list of the "Top 25 Most Endangered Primates"
Location(s) Countries in which it is found
Estimated population Latest population estimate from the IUCN
IUCN status Conservation status of the species, per the IUCN as of the date of the latest list publication
Threats A list of threats facing the species; used by the IUCN in assessing conservation status

Current list

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The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2018–2020: Madagascar[1]
Species Years listed Location(s) Estimated population IUCN status Threats
Bemanasy mouse lemur
Microcebus manitatra 		2018 Madagascar unknown  
Critically Endangered[11]
  • loss of habitat (agricultural encroachment)
 
Hapalemur alaotrensis
Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur
Hapalemur alaotrensis 		2000
2014
2016
2018 		Madagascar 2,500
(2018 estimate) 		 
Critically Endangered[12]
  • loss of habitat (agricultural encroachment, burning of marshlands [to create rice paddies, catch fish, and for cattle grazing]
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • live capture (local pet trade)
James' sportive lemur
Lepilemur jamesorum 		2016
2018 		Madagascar 1,386
(2010 estimate) 		 
Critically Endangered[13]
  • habitat loss (shifting agriculture)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • live capture (pet trade)
 
Indri indri
Indri
Indri indri 		2012
2018 		Madagascar unknown  
Critically Endangered[14]
  • loss of habitat (slash-and-burn agriculture, firewood)
  • hunting (bushmeat, skins)
 
Daubentonia madagascariensis
Aye-aye
Daubentonia madagascariensis 		2016
2018 		Madagascar unknown  
Endangered[15]
  • habitat loss (selective logging for local use [boats, houses, coffins], agricultural encroachment, fire)
  • hunting (pests, local taboos, bushmeat)
The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2012–2014: Africa[2]
Species Years listed Location(s) Estimated population IUCN status Threats
Rondo dwarf galago
Galagoides rondoensis 		2006
2008
2010
2012 		Tanzania unknown  
Critically Endangered[16]
  • very small range
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (agricultural encroachment, charcoal production, logging)
 
Cercopithecus roloway
Roloway monkey
Cercopithecus roloway 		2002
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Côte d'Ivoire
Ghana 		unknown  
Endangered[17]
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (agricultural encroachment, charcoal production, logging)
Tana River red colobus
Procolobus rufomitratus 		2002
2004
2006
2008
2012 		Kenya 1,100–1,300  
Endangered[18]
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (agricultural encroachment, fire, firewood, selective logging for local use [houses, canoes])
  • habitat degradation (livestock, dam construction, irrigation projects)
  • parasitic infection of isolated populations
 
Piliocolobus pennantii pennantii
Bioko red colobus
Piliocolobus pennantii pennantii 		2004
2006
2010
2012 		Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island) fewer than 5,000  
Endangered[19]
  • habitat degradation
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • small range
 
Gorilla beringei graueri
Eastern lowland gorilla
Gorilla beringei graueri 		2010
2012 		Democratic Republic of the Congo 5,000  
Critically Endangered[20]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (agricultural encroachment, pastoral farming, illegal mining, charcoal production, wood and bamboo harvesting)
  • hunting (bushmeat, infant capture)
The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2012–2014: Asia[2]
Species Years listed Location(s) Estimated population IUCN status Threats
 
Nycticebus javanicus
Javan slow loris
Nycticebus javanicus 		2008
2010
2012 		Indonesia (Java) unknown  
Critically Endangered[21]
  • live capture (pet trade [intense])
  • hunting (traditional medicine [intense])
  • habitat loss (agriculture, development activities [roads], human disturbance)
Pig-tailed langur
Simias concolor 		2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Indonesia (Mentawai Islands) 700–3,347  
Critically Endangered[22]
  • habitat loss (human encroachment, product extraction, commercial logging, conversion to cash crops and oil palm plantations)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • live capture (pet trade)
 
Trachypithecus delacouri
Delacour's langur
Trachypithecus delacouri 		2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Vietnam fewer than 250  
Critically Endangered[23]
  • habitat fragmentation
  • hunting (bushmeat, traditional medicine)
 
Golden-headed langur
Trachypithecus poliocephalus 		2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Vietnam 60–70  
Critically Endangered[24]
  • habitat fragmentation (human encroachment, development for tourism)
  • hunting (bushmeat, traditional medicine)
 
Western purple-faced langur
Semnopithecus vetulus nestor 		2004
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Sri Lanka unknown  
Critically Endangered[25]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (urbanization, agricultural encroachment)
  • dependent on gardens for survival
  • live capture (pet trade)
  • hunting (pests)
  • other human factors (electrocution [power lines], road kill, dog attacks)
 
Grey-shanked douc
Pygathrix cinerea 		2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Vietnam 600–700  
Critically Endangered[26]
  • restricted range
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (agricultural encroachment, illegal logging, firewood)
  • hunting (bushmeat, traditional medicine)
  • live capture (pet trade)
 
Rhinopithecus avunculus
Tonkin snub-nosed monkey
Rhinopithecus avunculus 		2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Vietnam 200–250  
Critically Endangered[27]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (logging, firewood, roads)
  • hunting (bushmeat, traditional medicine)
Eastern black crested gibbon
Nomascus nasutus 		2008
2010
2012 		China
Vietnam 		around 110  
Critically Endangered[28]
  • habitat loss, fragmentation, and disturbance (agricultural encroachment, pastoral farming, firewood, charcoal production)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
Pygmy tarsier
Tarsius pumilus 		2012 Indonesia (Sulawesi) unknown  
Data deficient[29]
  • habitat loss (human encroachment)
The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2012–2014: Neotropics[2]
Species Years listed Location(s) Estimated population IUCN status Threats
 
Ateles hybridus
Brown spider monkey
Ateles hybridus 		2004[N 1]
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Colombia
Venezuela 		unknown  
Critically Endangered[30]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (agricultural encroachment, cattle-ranching, logging)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • live capture (pet trade)
Brown-headed spider monkey
Ateles fusciceps fusciceps 		2006
2012 		Ecuador unknown  
Critically Endangered[31]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation
  • hunting (bushmeat)
Kaapori capuchin
Cebus kaapori 		2012 Brazil unknown  
Critically Endangered[32]
  • habitat loss and degradation (selective logging)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • live capture (pet trade)
Rio Mayo titi
Callicebus oenanthe 		2012 Peru unknown  
Critically Endangered[33]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (rice and coffee plantations, roads, cattle-ranching)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • live capture (pet trade)
 
Alouatta guariba guariba
Northern brown howler
Alouatta guariba guariba 		2012 Brazil fewer than 250  
Critically Endangered[34]
  • habitat loss (selective logging)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • disease epidemics

Former list members

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With each new publication, species are both added and removed from the list. In some cases, removal from the list signifies improvement for the species. With the publication of the 2006–2008 list, four species were removed because of increased conservation efforts: the black lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysopygus), golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia), mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei), and Perrier's sifaka (Propithecus perrieri).[35] In 2008, the black lion tamarin went from critically endangered to endangered and the golden lion tamarin was similarly promoted in 2003 after three decades of collaborative conservation efforts by zoos and other institutions. Well-protected species such as these still have very small populations, and due to deforestation, new habitat is still needed for their long-term survival.[10] The Hainan black crested gibbon (Nomascus hainanus), which was removed from the 2008–2010 list, still has fewer than 20 individuals left, but significant efforts to protect it are now being made.[4] Mittermeier claimed in 2007 that all 25 species could be elevated off the list within five to ten years if conservation organizations had the necessary resources.[35]

Unlike the changes in the 2006–2008 report, not all species were removed from the 2008–2010 list due to improvement in their situation. Instead, new species were added to bring attention to other closely related species with very small populations that are also at risk of extinction. For example, the highly endangered eastern black crested gibbon (Nomascus nasutus) replaced the Hainan black crested gibbon. The Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus) replaced the Horton Plains slender loris (Loris tardigradus nycticeboides) because the former has been hit the hardest of Asian lorises, all of which are declining rapidly due primarily to capture for the exotic pet trade, as well as use in traditional medicines and forest loss. In another case, the brown-headed spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps fusciceps) was omitted from the list since no spokesperson could be found for the species.[4] The same approach was taken with the 2012–2014 list.[2]

Primates formerly listed in the Top 25 Most Endangered Primates: Madagascar[4][7][2][8][9]
Species Years listed Location(s) Estimated population IUCN status Threats
 
Prolemur simus
Greater bamboo lemur
Prolemur simus 		2002
2004
2006
2008
2010 		Madagascar 500 or fewer  
Critically Endangered[36]
  • small, isolated populations
  • loss of habitat and fragmentation (slash-and-burn agriculture, mining, illegal logging, cutting of bamboo)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • reduced availability of drinking water due to climatic change
  • extreme dietary specialization and dependency on giant bamboo
 
Varecia variegata
Black-and-white ruffed lemur
Varecia variegata 		2010 Madagascar unknown  
Critically Endangered[37]
  • loss of habitat and fragmentation (slash-and-burn agriculture, mining, logging)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
 
Gray-headed lemur
Eulemur cinereiceps 		2004
2006
2008 		Madagascar 7,265 ± 2,268  
Endangered[38]
  • very small range (~700 km2)
  • hybridization with red-fronted lemur (E. rufifrons)
  • low population densities
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (fragmented, small populations)
  • cyclones
  • hunting (bushmeat)
 
Propithecus tattersalli
Golden-crowned sifaka
Propithecus tattersalli 		2000 Madagascar 6,000–10,000[39]  
Endangered[39]
  • hunting (by gold miners)
  • loss of habitat (slash-and-burn agriculture, uncontrolled grass fires, wood extraction [housing & firewood], selective logging, gold mining)[39]
 
Hapalemur aureus
Golden bamboo lemur
Hapalemur aureus 		2000 Madagascar fewer than 5,916[40]  
Endangered[40]
  • loss of habitat (slash-and-burn agriculture, cutting of bamboo [for building houses, carrying water, making baskets and other local uses])
  • hunting (bushmeat)[40]
 
Lepilemur sahamalazensis
Sahamalaza sportive lemur
Lepilemur sahamalazensis 		2006 Madagascar unknown  
Data deficient[41]
  • loss of habitat (agricultural encroachment, charcoal production, selective logging for local use [houses])
  • hunting (bushmeat)[41]
 
Propithecus perrieri
Perrier's sifaka
Propithecus perrieri 		2000
2002
2004
2014
2016 		Madagascar around 915[42]  
Critically Endangered[42]
  • loss of habitat (slash-and-burn agriculture, charcoal production, fires to clear forest for pasture, mining)
  • hunting (bushmeat)[42]
 
Eulemur flavifrons
Blue-eyed black lemur
Eulemur flavifrons 		2008
2010
2012 		Madagascar 450–2,300  
Critically Endangered[43]
  • very small range (~2,700 km2)
  • loss of habitat (slash-and-burn agriculture, selective logging)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • live capture (pet trade)
Northern sportive lemur
Lepilemur septentrionalis 		2008
2010
2012 		Madagascar around 19  
Critically Endangered[44]
 
Propithecus candidus
Silky sifaka
Propithecus candidus 		2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012 		Madagascar fewer than 250  
Critically Endangered[45]
  • very small range
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • habitat loss (slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging, firewood)
 
Microcebus berthae
Madame Berthe's mouse lemur
Microcebus berthae 		2012 Madagascar fewer than 8,000  
Critically Endangered[46]
  • loss of habitat and fragmentation (slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging)
 
Varecia rubra
Red ruffed lemur
Varecia rubra 		2012 Madagascar unknown  
Critically Endangered[47]
  • loss of habitat (slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging, human encroachment)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
Lavasoa Mountains dwarf lemur
Cheirogaleus lavasoensis 		2014 Madagascar ?[48]  
Endangered[48]
Gerp's mouse lemur
Microcebus gerpi 		2016 Madagascar ?[49]  
Critically Endangered[49]
Ring-tailed lemur
Lemur catta 		2016 Madagascar ?[50]  
Endangered[50]
Primates formerly listed in the Top 25 Most Endangered Primates: Africa[4][2]
Species Years listed Location(s) Estimated population IUCN status Threats
Mount Rungwe galago
Galagoides sp. 		2004 Tanzania unknown Not evaluated
  • loss of habitat (logging, agricultural encroachment, charcoal production)
  • hunting (bushmeat)[3]
 
Sclater's guenon
Sclater's guenon
Cercopithecus sclateri 		2000 Nigeria unknown  
Vulnerable[51]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (logging, agricultural encroachment, oil exploration)
  • high human density
  • hunting (bushmeat)[51]
 
Mandrillus leucophaeus
Drill
Mandrillus leucophaeus 		2000 Cameroon
Equatorial Guinea (Bioko)
Nigeria 		unknown  
Endangered[52]
  • small range
  • loss of habitat (clearcutting [for chipboard factories and settlement])
  • hunting (bushmeat, persecution as pests)[52]
 
Tana River mangabey
Cercocebus galeritus galeritus 		2002 Kenya 1,000–1,200[53]  
Endangered[53]
  • loss of habitat (palm oil production, logging, agricultural encroachment, grass fires intended to prevent forest regeneration, overgrazing, damming and irrigation projects)
  • hunting (persecution as pests)[53]
 
Cercocebus sanjei
Sanje mangabey
Cercocebus sanjei 		2000
2002
2004 		Tanzania fewer than 1,300[54]  
Endangered[54]
  • loss of habitat (logging, charcoal production)
  • hunting (persecution as pests)[54]
 
Cercocebus atys lunulatus
Sooty mangabey
Cercocebus atys lunulatus 		2000
2002
2004 		Côte d'Ivoire
Ghana 		unknown  
Endangered[55]
  • habitat loss and degradation
  • hunting (bushmeat)[55]
Miss Waldron's red colobus
Piliocolobus badius waldronae 		2000
2002
2006 		Côte d'Ivoire
Ghana 		unknown  
Critically Endangered[56]
  • very small populations (recent, very rapid declines in numbers)
  • habitat loss
  • hunting (bushmeat)[56]
 
Gorilla beringei beringei
Mountain gorilla
Gorilla beringei beringei 		2000
2002
2004 		Rwanda
Uganda 		around 880  
Critically Endangered[57]
  • two isolated populations
  • political instability
  • human diseases
  • hunting (bushmeat)[57]
 
Niger Delta red colobus
Procolobus epieni 		2008
2010 		Nigeria unknown  
Critically Endangered[58]
  • very small range (~1,500 km2)
  • hunting (bushmeat)
  • habitat loss and degradation (logging of important food trees, loss of marsh forests due to canal construction)
 
Rungwecebus kipunji
Kipunji
Rungwecebus kipunji 		2006
2008 		Tanzania around 1,117  
Critically Endangered[59]
  • very small range
  • habitat loss and fragmentation
  • hunting (bushmeat)
 
Gorilla gorilla diehli
Cross River gorilla
Gorilla gorilla diehli 		2000
2002
2004
2006
2008 		Cameroon
Nigeria 		200–300  
Critically Endangered[60]
  • small, restricted range
  • habitat loss (agricultural encroachment, fires to clear forest or improve pasture, development activities [roads])
  • hunting (bushmeat, wire snares set for other wildlife)
Primates formerly listed in the Top 25 Most Endangered Primates: Asia[4]
Species Years listed Location(s) Estimated population IUCN status Threats
Horton Plains slender loris
Loris tardigradus nycticeboides 		2004
2006 		Sri Lanka unknown  
Endangered[61]
  • five isolated populations
  • habitat loss
  • hunting (bushmeat)[61]
Natuna Island surili
Presbytis natunae 		2002 Indonesia fewer than 10,000[62]  
Vulnerable[62]
  • two isolated populations
  • habitat loss and degradation
  • live capture (pet trade)[62]
White-headed langur
Trachypithecus poliocephalus leucocephalus 		2002 China, Vietnam fewer than 250  
Critically Endangered[63]
  • very small populations (recent, very rapid declines in numbers)
  • habitat loss
  • hunting[63]
 
Miller's grizzled langur
Presbytis hosei canicrus 		2004 Indonesia (Kalimantan) unknown  
Endangered[64]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation
  • hunting[64]
 
Black snub-nosed monkey
Rhinopithecus bieti 		2002 China fewer than 2,000[65]  
Endangered[65]
  • habitat loss (logging, fires for agricultural use, pasture)
  • pesticide use
  • hunting (non-targeted [snares])[65]
 
Gray snub-nosed monkey
Rhinopithecus brelichi 		2002 China around 750[66]  
Endangered[66]
  • one isolated population (vulnerable to epidemic disease or catastrophes)
  • habitat loss (forest clearing, development for tourism, agricultural expansion, firewood)
  • hunting (non-targeted)[66]
 
Hylobates moloch
Silvery gibbon
Hylobates moloch 		2000 Indonesia (Java) 4,000–4,500[67]  
Endangered[67]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation
  • live capture (pet trade)[67]
 
Nomascus hainanus
Hainan black crested gibbon
Nomascus hainanus 		2000
2004
2006 		China (Hainan) around 20[68]  
Critically Endangered[68]
  • extremely small population size
  • suboptimal, protected habitat
  • possible gender bias in recent births
  • hunting (bushmeat)[68]
 
Siau Island tarsier
Tarsius tumpara 		2006
2008
2010 		Indonesia (Siau Island) Low thousands at best Not evaluated
  • island population (near an active volcano)
  • very small range
  • high human density
  • hunting [bushmeat (used as snack food)]
  • habitat degradation
 
Hoolock hoolock
Western hoolock gibbon
Hoolock hoolock 		2006
2008 		Bangladesh
India
Myanmar 		fewer than 5,000  
Endangered[69]
  • very small populations (recent, very rapid declines in numbers)
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (human encroachment, tea plantations, slash-and-burn cultivation)
  • hunting (bushmeat, traditional medicine)
  • live capture (pet trade)
 
Pongo abelii
Sumatran orangutan
Pongo abelii 		2000
2002
2004
2006
2008 		Indonesia (Sumatra) around 6,600  
Critically Endangered[70]
  • recent, very rapid declines in numbers
  • only 10 fragmented habitat units
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (fires, agriculture and oil palm plantations, roads, logging, encroachment)
  • hunting (pests, bushmeat) [occasional]
  • live capture (pet trade) [occasional]
 
Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus
Northwest Bornean orangutan
Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus 		2010 Indonesia (West Kalimantan, Borneo)
Malaysia (Sarawak) 		unknown  
Endangered[71]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (fires, agriculture and oil palm plantations, roads, logging, encroachment)
  • hunting (pests, bushmeat, traditional medicine)
  • live capture (pet trade)
 
Macaca silenus
Lion-tailed macaque
Macaca silenus 		2010 India fewer than 4,000  
Endangered[72]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (agriculture and tea/coffee plantations, logging)
  • hunting (bushmeat, traditional medicine)
Primates formerly listed in the Top 25 Most Endangered Primates: Neotropics[4]
Species Years listed Location(s) Estimated population IUCN status Threats
 
Leontopithecus rosalia
Golden lion tamarin
Leontopithecus rosalia 		2000 Brazil (Rio de Janeiro) 3,200[73]  
Endangered[73]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (fires to clear forest for pasture)
  • live capture (pet trade)[73]
 
Leontopithecus chrysopygus
Black lion tamarin
Leontopithecus chrysopygus 		2000 Brazil (São Paulo) around 1,000[74]  
Endangered[74]
  • small population size (11 isolated populations, but only one is viable)
  • habitat loss and fragmentation[74]
 
Superagui lion tamarin
Superagui lion tamarin
Leontopithecus caissara 		2000
2002
2004 		Brazil (Paraná and São Paulo) fewer than 400[75]  
Critically Endangered[75]
  • small, isolated populations
  • habitat loss and degradation (agricultural encroachment, palm heart harvesting, tourism)
  • high human density (increased squatting by impoverished people, land speculation)
  • hunting (bushmeat)[75]
 
Cebus xanthosternos
Golden-bellied capuchin
Cebus xanthosternos 		2000
2002
2004 		Brazil (Bahia, Minas Gerais?) unknown  
Critically Endangered[76]
  • habitat loss
  • hunting (bushmeat)[76]
 
Northern muriqui
Northern muriqui
Brachyteles hypoxanthus 		2000
2002
2004 		Brazil (Bahia, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais) fewer than 1,000[77]  
Critically Endangered[77]
  • small, isolated populations
  • habitat loss and fragmentation
  • hunting (bushmeat [past], sport [past])[77]
 
Oreonax flavicauda
Yellow-tailed woolly monkey
Oreonax flavicauda 		2000
2006
2008
2010 		Peru unknown  
Critically Endangered[78]
  • restricted range
  • low population densities
  • habitat loss (agriculture, logging, roads, colonization)
  • hunting (bushmeat, fur)
  • live capture (pet trade)
 
Saguinus oedipus
Cotton-top tamarin
Saguinus oedipus 		2008 Colombia fewer than 6,000  
Critically Endangered[79]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (large-scale agricultural production [cattle] and farming, logging, oil palm plantations, hydroelectric projects)
  • live capture (pet trade [current], biomedical research [past])
 
Sapajus flavius
Blond capuchin
Cebus flavius 		2010 Brazil 180  
Critically Endangered[80]
  • habitat loss and fragmentation (coastal development and sugar cane plantations)
  • live capture (pet trade)
  • hunting (bushmeat)

List history

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With the exception of the 2000–2002 publication, which was written collaboratively by the IUCN/SSC PSG and CI, the list has been revised every two years following the biannual Congress of the IPS. The 2002–2004 list resulted from the 19th Congress of the IPS in Beijing, China; the 2004–2006 list followed the 20th Congress of the IPS, held in Torino, Italy; the 2006–2008 list after the 21st Congress in Entebbe, Uganda; the 2008–2010 list followed the 22nd Congress held in Edinburgh, UK; the 2010-2012 list followed the 23rd Congress in Kyoto, Japan; the 2012–2014 list after the 24th Congress in Cancún, Mexico; the 2014–2016 list after the 25th Congress in Hanoi, Vietnam; the 2016–2018 list after the 26th Congress in Chicago, US; the 2018–2020 list after the 27th Congress in Nairobi, Kenya; and the 2022–2023 list after the 28th Congress in Quito, Ecuador.[4]

The 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species offered assessments of 634 primate taxa, of which 303 (47.8%) were listed as threatened (vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered). A total of 206 primate species were ranked as either critically endangered or endangered, 54 (26%) of which have been included at least once in The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates since 2000.[4]

Historical membership[4]
Madagascar Africa Asia Neotropics
2000–2002
  • Propithecus candidus[N 2]
  • Propithecus perrieri[N 3]
  • Propithecus tattersalli
  • Hapalemur aureus
  • Hapalemur griseus alaotrensis[N 4]
  • Gorilla gorilla diehli
  • Gorilla b. beringei[N 5]
  • Cercocebus sanjei[N 6]
  • Cercocebus atys lunulatus
  • Procolobus badius waldronae[N 7]
  • Cercopithecus sclateri
  • Mandrillus leucophaeus
  • Trachypithecus delacouri
  • Trachypithecus p. poliocephalus[N 8]
  • Pygathrix cinerea[N 9]
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Pongo abelii
  • Hylobates moloch
  • Nomascus hainanus[N 10]
  • Brachyteles hypoxanthus
  • Cebus xanthosternos
  • Leontopithecus caissara
  • Leontopithecus rosalia
  • Leontopithecus chrysopygus
  • Oreonax flavicauda[N 11]
2002–2004
  • Propithecus candidus
  • Propithecus perrieri
  • Prolemur simus
  • Gorilla gorilla diehli
  • Gorilla b. beringei
  • Cercocebus galeritus sanjei
  • Cercocebus atys lunulatus
  • Procolobus badius waldronae[N 7]
  • Procolobus rufomitratus
  • Cercopithecus diana roloway
  • Cercocebus g. galeritus
  • Trachypithecus delacouri
  • Trachypithecus p. poliocephalus[N 8]
  • Pygathrix cinerea[N 9]
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Pongo abelii
  • Simias concolor
  • Presbytis natunae
  • Trachypithecus poliocephalus leucocephalus[N 12]
  • Rhinopithecus bieti
  • Rhinopithecus brelichi
  • Nomascus nasutus
  • Brachyteles hypoxanthus
  • Cebus xanthosternos
  • Leontopithecus caissara
2004–2006
  • Propithecus candidus
  • Propithecus perrieri
  • Prolemur simus
  • Eulemur cinereiceps[N 13]
  • Gorilla gorilla diehli
  • Gorilla b. beringei[N 5]
  • Cercocebus galeritus sanjei
  • Cercocebus atys lunulatus
  • Procolobus rufomitratus
  • Procolobus p. pennantii
  • Galagoides sp.
  • Trachypithecus delacouri
  • Trachypithecus p. poliocephalus
  • Pygathrix cinerea
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Pongo abelii
  • Simias concolor
  • Loris tardigradus nycticeboides
  • Presbytis hosei canicrus
  • Trachypithecus vetulus nestor
  • Nomascus hainanus[N 10]
  • Brachyteles hypoxanthus
  • Cebus xanthosternos
  • Leontopithecus caissara
  • Ateles hybridus brunneus
2006–2008
  • Propithecus candidus
  • Lepilemur sahamalazensis
  • Prolemur simus
  • Eulemur cinereiceps[N 13]
  • Gorilla gorilla diehli
  • Procolobus rufomitratus
  • Procolobus p. pennantii
  • Cercopithecus diana roloway
  • Rungwecebus kipunji
  • Galagoides rondoensis
  • Procolobus badius waldroni[N 7]
  • Trachypithecus delacouri
  • Trachypithecus p. poliocephalus
  • Pygathrix cinerea
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Pongo abelii
  • Simias concolor
  • Trachypithecus vetulus nestor
  • Hoolock hoolock
  • Nomascus hainanus
  • Loris tardigradus nycticeboides
  • Tarsius tumpara[N 14]
  • Ateles hybridus[N 1]
  • Oreonax flavicauda
  • Ateles f. fusciceps[N 15]
2008–2010
  • Propithecus candidus
  • Lepilemur septentrionalis
  • Prolemur simus
  • Eulemur cinereiceps
  • Eulemur flavifrons
  • Gorilla gorilla diehli
  • Procolobus rufomitratus
  • Cercopithecus diana roloway
  • Rungwecebus kipunji
  • Galagoides rondoensis
  • Procolobus epieni
  • Trachypithecus delacouri
  • Trachypithecus p. poliocephalus
  • Pygathrix cinerea
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Pongo abelii
  • Simias concolor
  • Semnopithecus vetulus nestor
  • Hoolock hoolock
  • Tarsius tumpara
  • Nycticebus javanicus
  • Nomascus nasutus
  • Ateles hybridus[N 1]
  • Oreonax flavicauda
  • Saguinus oedipus
2010–2012
  • Eulemur flavifrons
  • Lepilemur septentrionalis
  • Prolemur simus
  • Propithecus candidus
  • Varecia variegata
  • Cercopithecus diana roloway
  • Galagoides rondoensis
  • Piliocolobus pennantii pennantii
  • Piliocolobus epieni
  • Gorilla beringei graueri
  • Tarsius tumpara
  • Nycticebus javanicus
  • Macaca silenus
  • Simias concolor
  • Trachypithecus delacouri
  • Trachypithecus poliocephalus
  • Semnopithecus vetulus nestor
  • Pygathrix cinerea
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Nomascus nasutus
  • Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus
  • Ateles hybridus[N 1]
  • Cebus flavius
  • Callicebus barbarabrownae
  • Oreonax flavicauda
2012–2014
  • Propithecus candidus
  • Lepilemur septentrionalis
  • Eulemur flavifrons
  • Microcebus berthae
  • Varecia rubra
  • Indri indri
  • Cercopithecus roloway
  • Galagoides rondoensis
  • Piliocolobus pennantii pennantii
  • Piliocolobus rufomitratus
  • Gorilla beringei graueri
  • Trachypithecus delacouri
  • Trachypithecus p. poliocephalus
  • Pygathrix cinerea
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Simias concolor
  • Semnopithecus vetulus nestor
  • Tarsius pumilus
  • Nycticebus javanicus
  • Nomascus nasutus
  • Ateles hybridus[N 1]
  • Ateles fusciceps fusciceps
  • Cebus kaapori
  • Callicebus oenanthe
  • Alouatta guariba guariba
2014–2016
  • Cheirogaleus lavasoensis
  • Hapalemur alaotrensis
  • Varecia rubra
  • Lepilemur septentrionalis
  • Propithecus perrieri
  • Galagoides rondoensis
  • Cercopithecus roloway
  • Piliocolobus preussi
  • Piliocolobus rufomitratus
  • Gorilla beringei graueri
  • Carlito syrichta
  • Nycticebus javanicus
  • Simias concolor
  • Trachypithecus delacouri
  • Trachypithecus poliocephalus
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Semnopithecus ajax
  • Semnopithecus vetulus nestor
  • Nomascus hainanus
  • Pongo abelii
  • Ateles hybridus[N 1]
  • Ateles fusciceps fusciceps
  • Cebus kaapori
  • Callicebus oenanthe
  • Alouatta guariba guariba
2016–2018
  • Microcebus gerpi
  • Hapalemur alaotrensis
  • Lemur catta
  • Lepilemur jamesorum
  • Propithecus perrieri
  • Daubentonia madagascariensis
  • Paragalago orinus
  • Cercopithecus roloway
  • Colobus vellerosus
  • Piliocolobus epieni
  • Gorilla beringei graueri
  • Nycticebus javanicus
  • Simias concolor
  • Trachypithecus poliocephalus
  • Rhinopithecus avunculus
  • Trachypithecus geei
  • Semnopithecus vetulus
  • Macaca nigra
  • Nomascus hainanus
  • Pongo pygmaeus
  • Plecturocebus caquetensis
  • Cebus kaapori
  • Alouatta guariba guariba
  • Ateles geoffroyi
  • Ateles fusciceps
2018–2020
  • Microcebus manitatra
  • Hapalemur alaotrensis
  • Lepilemur jamesorum
  • Indri indri
  • Daubentonia madagascariensis
  • Paragalago rondoensis
  • Cercopithecus roloway
  • Rungwecebus kipunji
  • Colobus vellerosus
  • Piliocolobus epieni
  • Piliocolobus rufomitratus
  • Pan troglodytes verus
  • Nycticebus javanicus
  • Simias concolor
  • Trachypithecus poliocephalus
  • Trachypithecus geei
  • Semnopithecus vetulus
  • Hoolock tianxing
  • Pongo tapanuliensis
  • Callithrix aurita
  • Saguinus bicolor
  • Cebus aequatorialis
  • Plecturocebus olallae
  • Alouatta guariba
  • Ateles geoffroyi
2022–2023
  • Microcebus berthae
  • Lepilemur septentrionalis
  • Eulemur flavifrons
  • Propithecus coquereli
  • Paragalogo rondoensis
  • Cercocebus chrysogaster
  • Erythrocebus baumstarki
  • Cercopithecus roloway
  • Piliocolobus epieni
  • Pan troglodytes ellioti
  • Nycticebus javanicus
  • Tarsius sangirensis
  • Semnopithecus vetulus
  • Trachypithecus poliocephalus
  • Presbytis femoralis
  • Rhinopithecus brelichi
  • Hoolock tianxing
  • Pongo tapanuliensis
  • Callithrix flaviceps
  • Cebus kaapori
  • Cebus aequatorialis
  • Plecturocebus grovesi
  • Alouatta guariba
  • Ateles fusciceps fusciceps
  • Ateles geoffroyi

See also

edit

Notes

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  1. ^ a b c d e f The subspecies Ateles hybridus brunneus was listed in the 2004–2006 report, but the listing was expanded to cover both subspecies of Ateles hybridus starting with the 2006–2008 report.[4][3][6]
  2. ^ In the 2000–2002 report, this lemur was listed as Propithecus diadema candidus, but it has since been reclassified as a separate species, Propithecus candidus.[4][81][82]
  3. ^ In the 2000–2002 report, this lemur was listed as Propithecus diadema perrieri, but it has since been reclassified as a separate species, Propithecus perrieri.[4][81][82]
  4. ^ In the 2000–2002 report, this lemur was listed as Hapalemur griseus alaotrensis, but it has since been reclassified as a separate species, Hapalemur alaotrensis.[4][81]
  5. ^ a b In the 2000–2002 and 2004–2006 reports, this gorilla was listed as Gorilla beringei, but other reports instead used Gorilla b. beringei.[4][3][81][82]
  6. ^ In the 2000–2002 and 2002–2004 reports, the mangabey was listed as Cercocebus galeritus sanjei, but it has since been classified as a separate species, Cercocebus sanjei.[4]
  7. ^ a b c In the 2000–2002, 2002–2004, and 2006–2008 reports, this colobus monkey was listed as Procolobus badius waldroni, but the spelling of the name has since been corrected to waldronae.[81][82][83]
  8. ^ a b In the 2000–2002 and 2002–2004 reports, this monkey was listed as Trachypithecus poliocephalus, but with other subspecies now recognized by the IUCN, it is now known as Trachypithecus p. poliocephalus.[4][3][81][82]
  9. ^ a b In the 2000–2002 and 2002–2004 reports, this douc was listed as Pygathrix nemaeus cinerea, but has since been recognized as a separate species, Pygathrix cinerea.[4][3]
  10. ^ a b In the 2000–2002 and 2004–2006 reports, this gibbon was listed as Hylobates concolor hainanus, but it has since been recognized as a separate species and placed in the genus Nomascus, so that it is known as Nomascus hainanus.[4][81]
  11. ^ In the 2000–2002 report, this species was listed as Lagothrix flavicauda, but it has since been renamed to Oreonax flavicauda.[4]
  12. ^ In the 2002–2004 report, this monkey was listed as Trachypithecus leucocephalus, but it is now considered only a subspecies, Trachypithecus poliocephalus leucocephalus.[4][82]
  13. ^ a b In the 2004–2006 and 2006–2008 reports, this species was listed as Eulemur albocollaris, but it has since been renamed to Eulemur cinereiceps.[4]
  14. ^ In the 2006–2008 report, this tarsier was listed as "Tarsius sp.", but it has since been formally named as Tarsius tumpara.[4][6]
  15. ^ The species Ateles fusciceps was listed in the 2006–2008 report, but the common name and description match the later identified subspecies, Ateles fusciceps fusciceps.[6]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f Schwitzer, C.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Rylands, A.B.; Chiozza, F.; Williamson, E.A.; Byler, D.; Wich, S.; Hulme, T.; Johnson, C.; Mynott, H.; McCabe, G., eds. (2019). "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2018–2020" (PDF). Illustrated by S.D. Nash. Washington, DC: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), Global Wildlife Conservation (GWC), and Bristol Zoological Society (BZS): 1–130. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Schwitzer, C.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Rylands, A.B.; Taylor, L.A.; Chiozza, F.; Williamson, E.A.; Wallis, J.; Clarke, F.E., eds. (2014). "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2012–2014" (PDF). Illustrated by S.D. Nash. Arlington, VA: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), Conservation International (CI), and Bristol Zoological Society (BZS): 1–91. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Mittermeier, R.A.; Valladares-Pádua, C.; Rylands, A.B.; Eudey, A.A.; Butynski, T.M.; Ganzhorn, J.U.; Kormos, R.; Aguiar, J.M.; Walker, S., eds. (2006). "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2004–2006". Primate Conservation. 2006 (20). Illustrated by S.D. Nash: 1–28. doi:10.1896/0898-6207.20.1.1. hdl:1893/1360. S2CID 198158796.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Mittermeier, R.A.; Wallis, J.; Rylands, A.B.; Ganzhorn, J.U.; Oates, J.F.; Williamson, E.A.; Palacios, E.; Heymann, E.W.; Kierulff, M.C.M.; Long Yongcheng; Supriatna, J.; Roos, C.; Walker, S.; Cortés-Ortiz, L.; Schwitzer, C., eds. (2009). Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2008–2010 (PDF). Vol. 24. Illustrated by S.D. Nash. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), and Conservation International (CI). pp. 1–92. doi:10.1896/052.024.0101. hdl:1893/1360. ISBN 978-1-934151-34-1. S2CID 35378121. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  5. ^ L., Smith (26 October 2007). "Primates in peril: 25 species facing threat of extinction". The Times. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  6. ^ a b c d Mittermeier, R.A.; Ratsimbazafy, J.; Rylands, A.B.; Williamson, L.; Oates, J.F.; Mbora, D.; Ganzhorn, J.U.; Rodríguez-Luna, E.; Palacios, E.; Heymann, E.W.; Cecília, M.; Kierulff, M.; Yongcheng, L.; Supriatna, J.; Roos, C.; Walker, S.; Aguiar, J.M., eds. (2007). "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2006–2008". Primate Conservation. 22. Illustrated by S.D. Nash: 1–40. doi:10.1896/052.022.0101. hdl:1893/1360. S2CID 198157959.
  7. ^ a b Mittermeier, R.A.; Schwitzer, C.; Rylands, A.B.; Schwitzer, C.; Taylor, L.A.; Chiozza, F.; Williamson, E.A. (2012). "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2010–2012" (PDF). IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), and Conservation International (CI): 1–40. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ a b Schwitzer, C.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Rylands, A.B.; Chiozza, F.; Williamson, E.A.; Wallis, J.; Cotton, A., eds. (2015). "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2014–2016" (PDF). Illustrated by S.D. Nash. Arlington, VA: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), Conservation International (CI), and Bristol Zoological Society (BZS): 1–93. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ^ a b Schwitzer, C.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Rylands, A.B.; Chiozza, F.; Williamson, E.A.; Macfie, E.J.; Wallis, J.; Cotton, A., eds. (2017). "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2016–2018" (PDF). Illustrated by S.D. Nash. Arlington, VA: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), Conservation International (CI), and Bristol Zoological Society (BZS): 1–107. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  10. ^ a b "World's most endangered primates revealed". IUCN News. 18 February 2010. Archived from the original on 3 April 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  11. ^ Blanco, M.; Dolch, R.; Donati, G.; Ganzhorn, J.; Greene, L.K.; Le Pors, B.; Lewis, R.; Rafalinirina, H.A.; Raharivololona, B.; Ralison, J.; Randriahaingo, H.N.T.; Rasoloarison, R.M.; Razafindrasolo, M.; Sgarlata, G.M.; Wright, P.; Zaonarivelo, J. (2020). "Microcebus manitatra". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T163313848A163313878. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  12. ^ Andrainarivo, C.; Andriaholinirina, V.N.; Feistner, A.; Felix, T.; Ganzhorn, J.; Garbutt, N.; Golden, C.; Konstant, B.; Louis Jr., E.; Meyers, D.; et al. (2008). "Hapalemur alaotrensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
  13. ^ Andriamisedra, T.R.; Ranaivoarisoa, F.N.; Ratsimbazafy, J.; Louis, E.E. (2020). "Lepilemur jamesorum". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T136491A115583306. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T136491A115583306.en. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
  14. ^ Andrainarivo, C.; Andriaholinirina, V.N.; Feistner, A.; Felix, T.; Ganzhorn, J.; Garbutt, N.; Golden, C.; Konstant, B.; Louis Jr., E.; Meyers, D.; et al. (2008). "Indri indri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  15. ^ Louis, E.E.; Sefczek, T.M.; Randimbiharinirina, D.R.; Raharivololona, B.; Rakotondrazandry, J.N.; Manjary, D.; Aylward, M.; Ravelomandrato, F. (2020). "Daubentonia madagascariensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T6302A115560793. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T6302A115560793.en. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
  16. ^ Perkin, A.; Bearder, S.; Honess, P. & Butynski, T.M. (2008). "Galagoides rondoensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T40652A10350268. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T40652A10350268.en.
  17. ^ Oates, J.F.; Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P. (2016). "Cercopithecus roloway". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T4232A92375108. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T4232A92375108.en.
  18. ^ Butynski, T.M.; Struhsaker, T. & De Jong, Y. (2016). "Piliocolobus rufomitratus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T136939A92658041. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T136939A92658041.en.
  19. ^ Oates, J.F. & Struhsaker, T. (2008). "Piliocolobus pennantii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T41025A92653137. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T41025A92653137.en.
  20. ^ Robbins, M.; Hart, J.; Maisels, F.; Mehlman, P.; Nixon, S. & Williamson, L. (2008). "Gorilla beringei ssp. graueri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  21. ^ Nekaris, A. & Shekelle, M. (2008). "Nycticebus javanicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
  22. ^ Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A. (2008). "Simias concolor". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T20229A9181121. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T20229A9181121.en.
  23. ^ Nadler, T.; Xuan Canh, L.; Ngoc Thanh, V. & Khac Quyet, L. (2008). "Trachypithecus delacouri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22043A9350654. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T22043A9350654.en.
  24. ^ Bleisch, B.; Xuan Canh, L.; Covert, B. & Yongcheng, L. (2008). "Trachypithecus poliocephalus ssp. poliocephalus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
  25. ^ Dittus, W.; Molur, S. & Nekaris, A. (2008). "Trachypithecus vetulus ssp. nestor". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  26. ^ Ngoc Thanh, V.; Lippold, L.; Nadler, T. & Timmons, R. J. (2008). "Pygathrix cinerea". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T39827A10273229. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T39827A10273229.en.
  27. ^ Xuan Canh, L.; Khac Quyet, L.; Thanh Hai, D. & Boonratana, R. (2008). "Rhinopithecus avunculus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T19594A8984679. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19594A8984679.en.
  28. ^ Bleisch, B. & Geissmann, T. (2008). "Nomascus nasutus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T41642A10526189. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T41642A10526189.en.
  29. ^ Shekelle, M. & Salim, A. (2008). "Tarsius pumilus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T21490A9288636. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T21490A9288636.en.
  30. ^ Urbani, B.; Morales, A.L.; Link, A. & Stevenson, P. (2008). "Ateles hybridus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T39961A10280054. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T39961A10280054.en.
  31. ^ Cuarón, A.D.; Morales, A.; Shedden, A.; Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C. (2008). "Ateles fusciceps ssp. fusciceps". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
  32. ^ Kierulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M. (2008). "Cebus kaapori". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T40019A10303725. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T40019A10303725.en.
  33. ^ Veiga, L.; Bóveda-Penalba, A.; Vermeer, J.; Tello-Alvarado, J.C. & Cornejo, F. (2008). "Callicebus oenanthe". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
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