Wikipedia

11th Airborne Division

(Redirected from U.S. 11th Air Assault Division)
This article is about the U.S. division. For the German division, see 11th Parachute Division (Germany).

The 11th Airborne Division ("Arctic Angels"[1]) is a United States Army combined forces between air assault infantry and airborne forces based in Alaska.

11th Airborne Division
Shoulder Sleeve Insignia
Active1943–1958
1963–1965
2022–present
Country United States
Branch United States Army
TypeAir assault infantry
Airborne forces
RoleAir assault
Airlift
Anti-tank warfare
Artillery observer
Bomb disposal
CBRN defense
Close air support
Close-quarters battle
Cold-weather warfare
Combined arms
Fire support
HUMINT
Indirect fire
ISTAR
Maneuver warfare
Military engineering
Parachuting
Raiding
Reconnaissance
SIGINT
Urban warfare
SizeDivision
Part of I Corps
Alaskan Command
Garrison/HQJoint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Anchorage, Alaska
Nickname(s)"Arctic Angels"[1]
"Angels" (special designation) (hist.)[2]
Motto(s)"Americas Arctic Angels-Arctic Tough"'
Colors  Maroon
Engagements
Website11thairbornedivision.army.mil
Commanders
Commanding GeneralMG Joseph Hilbert
Command Sergeant MajorCSM Vern B. Daley
Deputy Commanding General, SupportBG Thomas E. Burke
Deputy Commanding General, OperationsBGen Robert W. McBride (Canadian Army)
Notable
commanders		Maj. Gen. Joseph M. Swing
Lt. Gen. Ridgely Gaither
Maj. Gen. Wayne C. Smith
Insignia
Distinctive unit insignia
WWII airborne background trimming (Type 2)
Current airborne background trimming; a combination of the WWII and U.S. Army Alaska trimming
Flag

Currently, this unit specializes in air assault and airborne operations, cold-weather warfare, combined arms, maneuver warfare, and urban warfare.

First activated on 25 February 1943, during World War II, it was held in reserve in the United States until June 1944 when it was transferred to the Pacific Theater where it saw combat in the Philippines. On 30 August 1945 the division was sent to southern Japan as part of the occupation force where it remained for four years. One parachute infantry regiment was detached for service in the Korean War, but on 30 June 1958 the division was inactivated.

In the summer of 2022 the U.S. Army Alaska headquarters was redesignated as the 11th Airborne Division, and the two Brigade Combat Teams in Alaska, the 1st Brigade Combat Team and 4th Brigade Combat Team, 25th Infantry Division, were transferred to the 11th Airborne Division and redesignated as the 1st and 2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team of the 11th Airborne Division.[4]

World War II

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Formation

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Inspired by the pioneering German use of large-scale airborne formations during the Battle of France in 1940 and later the invasion of Crete in 1941,[5] the various Allied powers decided to raise airborne units of their own.[6] One of the resultant five American and two British airborne divisions,[7][8] the 11th Airborne Division, was officially activated on 25 February 1943 at Camp Mackall in North Carolina, under the command of Major General Joseph Swing. As formed, the division consisted of the 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment, the 187th Glider Infantry Regiment and the 188th Glider Infantry Regiment, and with a complement of 8,321 men was around half the strength of a regular U.S. infantry division of World War II.[9]

 
Lieutenant General Joseph M. Swing, commander of the 11th Airborne Division during World War II.

The division initially remained in the United States for training, which in common with all airborne units was extremely arduous to befit their elite status.[10] Training included lengthy forced marches, simulated parachute landings from 34-and-250-foot (10 and 76 m) towers, and practice jumps from transport aircraft; hesitancy in the doorway of an aircraft resulted in an automatic failure for the candidate. The washout rate was high, but there was never a shortage of candidates, especially because in American airborne units the rate of pay was much higher than that of an ordinary infantryman.[10]

Before training was complete a debate developed in the U.S. Army over whether the best use of airborne forces was en masse or as small, compact units. On 9 July 1943, the first large-scale Allied airborne operation was carried out by elements of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division and the British 1st Airborne Division in support of the Allied invasion of Sicily, code-named Operation Husky.[11] The 11th Airborne Division commanding general, Swing, was temporarily transferred to act as airborne advisor to General Dwight D. Eisenhower for the operation and observed the airborne assault which went badly. The 82nd Airborne Division had been inserted by parachute and glider and had suffered high casualties, leading to a perception that it had failed to achieve many of its objectives.[12]

Swing Board

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Eisenhower reviewed the airborne role in Operation Husky and concluded that large-scale formations were too difficult to control in combat to be practical.[13] Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair, the overall commander of Army Ground Forces, had similar misgivings: once an airborne supporter, he had been greatly disappointed by the performance of airborne units in North Africa and more recently Sicily. However, other high-ranking officers, including the Army Chief of Staff George Marshall, believed otherwise. Marshall persuaded Eisenhower to set up a review board and to withhold judgement until the outcome of a large-scale maneuver, planned for December 1943, could be assessed.[14]

When Swing returned to the United States to resume command of the 11th Airborne in mid-September 1943, he was given the role of preparing the exercise.[15] McNair ordered him to form a committee—the Swing Board—composed of United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), parachute, glider infantry and artillery officers, whose arrangements for the maneuver would effectively decide the fate of divisional-sized airborne forces.[12] As the 11th Airborne Division was in reserve in the United States and had not yet been earmarked for combat, the Swing Board selected it as the test formation. The maneuver would additionally provide the 11th Airborne and its individual units with further training, as had occurred several months previously in an earlier large-scale exercise conducted by the 101st and the 82nd Airborne Divisions.[16]

"I do not believe in the airborne division. I believe that airborne troops should be reorganized in self-contained units, comprising infantry, artillery, and special services, all about the strength of a regimental combat team [...] To employ at any time and place a whole division would require a dropping over such an extended area that I seriously doubt that a division commander could regain control and operate the scattered forces as one unit."

–The conclusion of General Eisenhower's review of the performance of American airborne forces during Operation Husky[12]

Knollwood Maneuver

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The 11th Airborne, as the attacking force, was assigned the objective of capturing Knollwood Army Auxiliary Airfield near Fort Bragg in North Carolina.[17] The force defending the airfield and its environs was a combat team composed of elements of the 17th Airborne Division and a battalion from the 541st Parachute Infantry Regiment.[18] The entire operation was observed by McNair, who would ultimately have a significant say in deciding the fate of the parachute infantry divisions.[19]

The Knollwood Maneuver took place on the night of 7 December 1943, with the 11th Airborne Division being airlifted to thirteen separate objectives by 200 C-47 Skytrain transport aircraft and 234 Waco CG-4A gliders.[20] The transport aircraft were divided into four groups, two of which carried paratroopers while the other two towed gliders. Each group took off from a different airfield in the Carolinas. The four groups deployed a total of 4,800 troops in the first wave. Eighty-five percent were delivered to their targets without navigational error,[20] and the airborne troops seized the Knollwood Army Auxiliary Airfield and secured the landing area for the rest of the division before daylight.[20] With its initial objectives taken, the 11th Airborne Division then launched a coordinated ground attack against a reinforced infantry regiment and conducted several aerial resupply and casualty evacuation missions in coordination with USAAF transport aircraft.[20] The exercise was judged by observers to be a great success. McNair, pleased by its results, attributed this success to the great improvements in airborne training that had been implemented in the months following Operation Husky. As a result of the Knollwood Maneuver, division-sized airborne forces were deemed to be feasible and Eisenhower permitted their retention.[21]

Leyte

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Main article: Battle of Leyte
 
Map of the Philippines with Leyte highlighted

Following the Knollwood Maneuver the 11th Airborne remained in reserve until January 1944, when it was moved by train from Camp Mackall to Camp Polk in Louisiana. After four weeks of final preparation for its combat role,[22] in April the division was moved to Camp Stoneman, California and then transferred to Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea, between 25 May and 11 June.[22] From June to September the division underwent acclimatization and continued its airborne training, conducting parachute drops in the New Guinea jungle and around the airfield in Dobodura. During this period, most of the glider troops became parachute-qualified making the division almost fully airborne. On 11 November the division boarded a convoy of naval transports and was escorted to Leyte in the Philippines, arriving on 18 November.[23] Four days later it was attached to XXIV Corps and committed to combat, but operating as an infantry division rather than in an airborne capacity. The 11th Airborne was ordered to relieve the 7th Infantry Division stationed in the Burauen-La Paz-Bugho area, engage and destroy all Japanese forces in its operational area, and protect XXIV Corps rear-area supply dumps and airfields.[24]

Swing ordered the 187th Glider Infantry Regiment (GIR) to guard the rear installations of XXIV Corps, while the 188th GIR was to secure the division's rear and conduct aggressive patrols to eliminate any enemy troops in the area. The 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR) was assigned the task of destroying all Japanese formations in the division's operational area, which it began on 28 November when it relieved the 7th Infantry. The 511th PIR advanced overland with two battalions abreast and the third in reserve,[25] but progress proved slow in the face of fierce Japanese resistance, a lack of mapped trails and heavy rainfall (with more than 23 inches (580 mm) falling in November alone). As the advance continued resupply became progressively more difficult; the division resorted to using large numbers of Piper Cub aircraft to drop food and ammunition.[26] Several attempts were made to improve the rate of advance, such as dropping platoons of the 187th GIR from Piper Cubs in front of the 511th PIR to reconnoiter, and using C-47 transport aircraft to drop artillery pieces to the regiment's location when other forms of transport, such as mule-trains, failed.[27]

 
Troops of the 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment evacuate a wounded soldier to an aid station at Manarawat on the island of Leyte, December 1944.

On 6 December the Japanese tried to disrupt operations on Leyte by conducting two small-scale airborne raids. The first attempted to deploy a small number of Japanese airborne troops to occupy several key American-held airfields at Tacloban and Dulag, but failed when the three aircraft used were either shot-down, crash-landed or destroyed on the ground along with their passengers.[28] The second, larger, raid was carried out by between 29 and 39 transport aircraft supported by fighters; despite heavy losses, the Japanese managed to drop a number of airborne troops around Burauen airfield, where the headquarters of 11th Airborne Division were located.[29][30] Five L-5 Sentinel reconnaissance aircraft and one C-47 transport were destroyed, but the raiders were eliminated by an ad hoc combat group of artillerymen, engineers and support troops led by Swing.[31]

The 511th PIR was reinforced by the 2nd Battalion, 187th GIR, and continued its slow but steady progress. On 17 December it broke through the Japanese lines and arrived at the western shoreline of Leyte, linking up with elements of the 32nd Infantry Division.[32] It was during this period that Private Elmer E. Fryar earned a posthumous Medal of Honor when he helped to repel a counterattack, personally killing twenty-seven Japanese soldiers before being mortally wounded by a sniper.[33] The regiment was ordered to set up temporary defensive positions before being relieved on 25 December by the 1st Batt., 187th GIR, and the 2nd Batt., 188th GIR, who would themselves incur considerable casualties against a heavily dug-in enemy. The 511th PIR was reassembled at its original base-camp in Leyte on 15 January 1945.[34]

Luzon

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Main article: Battle of Luzon

On 22 January the division was placed on alert for an operation on the island of Luzon, to the north of Leyte.[31] Five days later the 187th and 188th Glider Infantry Regiments were embarked for Luzon by sea, while the 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment flew by C-46 Commando transport aircraft to Mindoro. At dawn on 31 January the 188th GIR led an amphibious assault near Nasugbu, in southern Luzon. Supported by a short naval barrage, A-20 Havoc light bombers and P-38 Lightning fighter aircraft, a beach-head was established in the face of light Japanese resistance.[35] The regiment moved rapidly to secure Nasugbu, after which its 1st Battalion advanced up the island's arterial Highway 17 to deny the Japanese time to establish defenses further inland. The 2nd Battalion moved south, crossing the River Lian and securing the division's right flank.[36] By 10:30 elements of the 188th had pushed deep into southern Luzon, creating the space for the 187th GIR to come ashore. The 188th's 2nd Battalion was relieved and the regiment continued its advance, reaching the River Palico by 14:30 and securing a vital bridge before it could be destroyed by Japanese combat engineers.

 
Troops of the 188th Glider Infantry Regiment make their way through the town of Nasugbu on the island of Luzon, 31 January 1945.

Following Highway 17 to Tumalin, the regiment began to encounter heavier Japanese resistance.[37] At midnight the 187th took over the lead and the two glider infantry regiments rested briefly before tackling the main Japanese defensive lines. These consisted of trenches linked to bunkers and fortified caves, and were manned by several hundred infantry with numerous artillery pieces in support.[38] At 09:00 on 1 February the glider infantry launched their assault, and by midday had managed to break through the first Japanese position; they spent the rest of the day conducting mopping up operations. On the morning of 2 February the second line was breached, and by midnight the 188th had broken a third. The divisional reconnaissance platoon was now in the vicinity of Tagaytay Ridge, the intended site of the 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment's first combat drop.[35][39]

The 511th's airborne operation had originally been scheduled for 2 February, but with Swing's insistence that the drop was only to go ahead if his ground forces were in range to offer support, the dogged Japanese resistance encountered delayed the operation.[39] With only 48 C-47s available, the 511th was forced to deploy in three waves. The regimental staff, the 2nd Battalion and half of the 3rd Battalion would drop first, the rest of the regiment would arrive in the second lift, and the 457th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion would drop in the third.[40]

 
Paratroopers of the 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment prepare for their combat jump on Tagaytay Ridge, 3 February 1945.

At 03:00 on 3 February the troops of the first lift entered their transport planes, and at 07:00 the first transports left Mindoro. Protected by an escort of P-61 Black Widow night fighters, on arriving over Luzon they followed Highway 17 to Tagaytay Ridge. The ridge itself was an open space some two thousand yards (1,800 m) long and four thousand yards (3,700 m) wide, plowed in places, and had been largely cleared of Japanese troops by local Filipino soldiers and recognized guerrillas.[40] At 08:15 the first echelon of the first lift, approximately 345 men, successfully parachuted into the drop zone. The second echelon, consisting of approximately 570 men, were dropped prematurely and landed about eight thousand yards (7,300 m) to the east. The next lift also encountered problems, with 425 men dropping correctly but another 1,325 dropping early due to pilot error and poor jump discipline.[41] However, the entire regiment was assembled within five hours of the first landings.[42] After overcoming minor Japanese resistance, by 15:00 the 511th had made contact with the 188th and 187th, and the entire division was once again assembled as a single formation. The ridge having been cleared of its remaining defenders, the division began to advance towards Manila, with the national highway in Silang, Dasmarinas, Imus and Bacoor where cleared by Fil-American Cavite Guerilla Forces FACGF under General Mariano Castaneda and reaching the Paranaque River by 21:00. The city was protected by the Genko Line, a major Japanese defensive belt that stretched along Manila's southern edge.[43] The line consisted of approximately 1,200 two- to three-story deep blockhouses, many of which emplaced naval guns or large-caliber mortars. Entrenched heavy anti-aircraft weapons, machine-gun nests and booby-traps made of naval bombs completed the defenses, which were manned by around 6,000 Japanese soldiers.[44]

 
An aerial view of the walled city of Intramuros after the Battle of Manila, May 1945

The 11th Airborne Division was ordered to breach the Genko Line and drive into Manila, where it would link up with other American forces attacking the city from the north. All three regiments were committed to the assault.[45] During the advance on Manila, the division's Chief of Staff, Colonel Irvin R. Schimmelpfennig III, was killed by Japanese small arms fire on 4 February and posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.[46] Spearheading the division's attack on 5 February, the 511th overcame fierce resistance and broke the crust of the Japanese position, but was soon relieved by the 188th. As the glider regiment took up the push westwards in the face of heavy opposition, the 511th changed their axis of advance and attempted to move into the city from the south.

By 11 February, the division had penetrated as far as Nichols Field, an airfield that formed the center of the Genko Line. This was heavily fortified with a number of entrenched naval guns and a series of bunkers; after a short artillery bombardment on the morning of 12 February, the 187th's 2nd Battalion attacked the airfield's north-west corner while the 1st Battalion and the entire 188th regiment moved in from the south and south-eastern corners. This pincer movement succeeded in taking the airfield and, despite a local counter-attack, by nightfall the position was secured.[47] The following day the division thrust towards Fort William McKinley, the headquarters of Rear Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi, commander of the Japanese defenders on Luzon. During this advance Private First Class Manuel Perez Jr. neutralized several Japanese bunkers which were impeding the division's progress, capturing one single-handedly and killing eighteen Japanese soldiers. Perez was killed by a sniper a month later in South Luzon, and posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.[48]

On 15 February, the 1st Battalion of the 187th, alongside other American units, launched an attack on Mabato Point. This was an extremely heavily fortified position featuring the same defensive measures as the Genko Line, and it would take six days of hard fighting, multiple airstrikes, and the frequent use of napalm and heavy artillery, before the point was secured.[49] Meanwhile, having taken heavy casualties on its approach to Fort McKinley—particularly when the Japanese detonated a quantity of buried naval depth charges—on 17 February the rest of the 11th Airborne Division assaulted the fort. The 511th led the break-in, and by 18 February the area had been cleared of its defenders.[50] Sporadic fighting continued in Manila until 3 March, when all organized Japanese resistance ended.[49] The commander of the 511th, Colonel Orin D. "Hard Rock" Haugen, died of shrapnel wounds sustained during the battle of Manila on 22 February.[51]

Raid at Los Baños

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Main article: Raid at Los Baños

A large number of civilian prisoners had been detained by the Japanese on Luzon, mostly in internment camps scattered throughout the island. The largest of these was located on the campus of the Agricultural College of the Philippines at Los Baños, some 40 miles (64 km) south-east of Manila.[52] General Douglas MacArthur had tasked the 11th Airborne Division with rescuing the Los Baños internees on 3 February, but the division's ongoing combat operations around the Genko Line left it unable to divert any resources at that time.[53] All that could be accomplished during February was to gather information, primarily through liaison with the guerilla groups operating in Southern Luzon and around Los Baños. Swing and his command staff were briefed daily by the officer working with the guerilla groups, Major Vanderpool.[53] From the guerillas and a few civilians that had escaped the camp, Vanderpool established that it was surrounded by two barbed-wire fences approximately six feet tall. Several guard towers and bunkers dotted its perimeter, each containing at least two guards. Prisoners left each morning under armed guard to gather food supplies and firewood from a nearby town.[54] Vanderpool was informed that the camp's population consisted of American civilians in three distinct groups: Protestant missionaries and their families; Roman Catholic nuns and priests; and professional workers such as doctors and engineers, and their families. The latter group included several hundred women and children. While all the inmates appeared to be in good health, many had become weak from food rationing.[55]

On 20 February, Swing was finally able to release sufficient troops for a raid on the Los Baños camp, and a four-phase plan was devised by Vanderpool and the divisional staff officers.[56] The divisional reconnaissance platoon would travel across a nearby lake and move to the outskirts of the camp, securing a large adjacent field as the drop zone for a company of paratroopers. Having landed, the paratroopers would eliminate Japanese resistance in the area, secure the camp, and prepare for its evacuation. Fifty-four amphibious Amtracs would transport two additional companies of paratroopers to the lake shore, where a beachhead would be established while the Amtracs continued to the camp to evacuate its occupants. Simultaneously, a task force consisting of a reinforced infantry battalion, two battalions of heavy artillery and a tank destroyer battalion would advance down Highway 1 towards Los Baños to interdict any Japanese attempts to interfere.[56]

 
Los Baños internees with 11th Airborne paratroopers after the raid, 23 February 1945.

Assisted by a group of guerrillas, on the night of 21 February the divisional reconnaissance platoon made their way to the lake and collected ten canoes. Despite navigational difficulties, the platoon came ashore near Los Baños at 02:00 the following morning, and after securing the paratroopers' drop zone, concealed themselves in the jungle near the camp.[57] During the afternoon B Company of the 1st Battalion, 511th PIR was transferred to the airfield from which they would be deployed, while the rest of the battalion rendezvoused with the Amtrac convoy.[58] At 07:00 on the morning of 23 February, B Company took off in ten C-47s, arriving over their drop zone shortly afterwards.[58] As the first paratroopers landed, the reconnaissance platoon and the supporting guerilla fighters opened fire on the camp's defences, using bazooka rounds to penetrate the concrete pillboxes, and then entered the camp to engage its garrison. The paratroopers soon joined the battle, and by 07:30 the Japanese guards had been overcome and the internees were being rounded up and readied for evacuation.[59] At the lakeshore the 511th's other two companies had secured their beachhead, and the convoy of Amtracs reached the camp without incident. Priority during loading was given to the women, children and wounded; some of the able-bodied men walked alongside the Amtracs as they returned to the beach. The first evacuation convoy left the camp at approximately 10:00, with B Company, the reconnaissance platoon and the guerrillas remaining behind to provide a rearguard. By 11:30 all of the civilians had been evacuated, and at 13:00 the Amtrac convoy returned for the rearguard, with the last paratroopers leaving the beach at approximately 15:00.[60] Meanwhile, on Highway 1, the taskforce that had been deployed to protect the operation met heavy Japanese resistance and suffered several casualties, but was able to block Japanese forces that advanced on the camp, before retreating back to American lines.[61] The raid had been a complete success, liberating 2,147 civilians.[62]

Southern Luzon and Aparri

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On the day that the Los Baños internees were freed, the headquarters of Sixth United States Army assigned the 11th Airborne Division the task of destroying all Japanese formations in southern Luzon, south of Manila.[63] The bulk of the division moved south the following day, with the 187th GIR and the 511th PIR advancing abreast. The 188th GIR was detached from the main advance by Swing; it was to eliminate all Japanese units still operating in the Pico de Loro hills along the southern shore of Manila Bay.[63] These forces belonged to the 80,000-strong Shimbu Group, one of three groups of the Japanese Fourteenth Area Army under General Tomoyuki Yamashita.[64] It would take until the end of April for the 11th Airborne Division—often acting in conjunction with Filipino soldiers, the recognized guerillas and elements of the 1st Cavalry Division—to subdue the Shimbu Group. Conducting combat operations was extremely difficult in the mountainous terrain, and many Japanese units elected to fight to the death rather than surrender.[63] However, all organized resistance in southern Luzon ended on 1 May, when the division captured Mount Malepunyo near the city of Lipa. The 11th Airborne established a base centered around the former Japanese airstrip on the outskirts of Lipa, the runway of which was lengthened by the 127th Airborne Engineer Battalion to accommodate C-47s. Once the engineering work was completed, the division's combat troops participated in several refresher-training courses.[65]

 
Map of Cagayan showing the location of Aparri

The 11th Airborne's next operation took place on 23 June in the province of Aparri in northern Luzon.[66] By this time the only Japanese forces remaining on the island were positioned to the far north and belonged to the 52,000-strong Shobu Group.[66][67] This last of General Yamashita's three groups proved to be the most tenacious, forcing Lieutenant-General Walter Krueger, commander of the Sixth United States Army, to commit four infantry divisions, an armored task force and a large band of the Filipino recognized guerrillas. While these forces pinned down the Japanese, the 37th Infantry Division began an advance northwards, defeating a weaker formation and encircling the main Japanese force. To ensure the success of the 37th's drive, Krueger called for an airborne force to land near Aparri and move southwards to meet the advancing 37th.[68]

The 11th Airborne Division was to drop a battalion-sized combat team on Camalaniugan Airfield, approximately ten miles (16 km) south of Aparri. It would then advance southwards, eliminating all Japanese resistance, until it linked up with the leading elements of the 37th Infantry Division.[69] To accomplish this Swing formed a special unit–Gypsy Task Force–comprising the 1st Battalion of the 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment, G and I Companies of the regiment's 2nd Battalion, an artillery battery from the 457th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion, and a platoon of engineers and miscellaneous signal and medical detachments.[70] Gypsy Task Force would be transported by 54 C-47s and 13 C-46s aircraft, as well as six Waco CG-4A Gliders which would land jeeps and supplies for the task force.[71] On 21 June, a detachment of pathfinders from the division was flown in to secure Camalaniugan Airfield, and two days later the transport aircraft carrying the troops of Gypsy Task Force were escorted by fighters to the area. At 09:00 the pathfinder detachment set off colored smoke to mark the drop-zone, but fierce winds and uneven ground around the airfield proved hazardous to the parachutists, causing two deaths and seventy injuries during the drop.[72] Despite these casualties the force was rapidly concentrated, and began its advance southwards. Japanese resistance was stiff, forcing the airborne troops to rely on flamethrowers to eliminate bunkers and fortifications along their route.[72] After three days of fighting and having eliminated a significant portion of Shobu Group, the task force encountered the lead elements of the 37th Infantry Division. Although Shobu Group would continue its resistance until September, its encirclement marked the 11th Airborne Division's final combat operation of the war.[73]

Casualties

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  • Total battle casualties: 2,431[74]
  • Killed in action: 494[74]
  • Died of wounds and injuries: 120[74]
  • Wounded in action: 1,926[74]
  • Missing in action: 11[74]

Awards

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During World War II the division and its members were awarded the following awards:[75]

Post-World War II

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Occupation of Japan

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Main article: Occupation of Japan
 
USAF C-54 Skymaster, of the type used to airlift the 11th Airborne Division into Japan

MacArthur made plans to use the 11th Airborne Division in the invasion of Japan; it was to remain as Sixth Army's operational reserve, to be committed if required.[76] However, with the end of hostilities in the Pacific Theater due to the surrender of Japan, the division was instead selected by MacArthur to lead the American forces that would occupy Japan.[77] The divisional staff received orders to this effect on 11 August 1945,[78] and the division was transported to Okinawa on 12 August; an operation that involved 99 B-24 Liberator bombers, 350 C-46s and 150 C-47s to airlift 11,100 men, 120 vehicles and approximately 1.16 million pounds (530,000 kg) of equipment.[78] The 11th Airborne remained on Okinawa for several weeks before,[79] on 28 August, it was ordered to land at Atsugi Airfield outside of Yokohama, on the main Japanese home island of Honshū. Its instructions were to secure the surrounding area, evacuate all Japanese civilians and military personnel within a radius of three miles (4.8 km), and finally occupy Yokohama itself.[78] A large number of C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft were made available, with the first—carrying Swing and his divisional staff—landing at Atsugi Airfield at 06:00 on 30 August.[78] It took a week to fully assemble the division, and by 13 September it had been joined by the 27th Infantry Division, which was airlifted into Japan at the same time.[80] The 11th Airborne Division was later moved from Yokohama to northern Japan, and established camps along the coast of Honshu and on the island of Hokkaido.[81]

Occupation duties in Japan continued until May 1949, when the 11th Airborne was relieved and recalled to the United States.[82] The division was transferred to Camp Campbell in Kentucky[82] and remained a combat formation ready to deploy worldwide. During the early 1950s, the Angels conducted several large scale training operations in Alaska, such as Exercise Snowbird. Angels descended near Denali on the first day from C-119s over the arctic region. Inactivated at Camp Anza, California, in December 1945, it was reactivated and redesignated as the 503rd Airborne Infantry Regiment in February 1951 and assigned to the 11th Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, following the departure of the 187th Airborne Infantry Regiment to Korea as a separate airborne regimental combat team. In 1956 the 503rd went with the rest of the 11th Airborne Division to posts in southeastern Germany.

Korean War

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USAF C-119 transport aircraft headed for a drop zone northwest of Seoul with paratroopers of the 187th RCT, 23 March 1951

Training continued until the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. For service in Korea, the 187th Glider Infantry Regiment—now renamed the 187th Airborne Infantry Regiment—and the 674th Airborne Field Artillery Battalion were detached from the division and re-formed as a separate Regimental Combat Team (RCT).[82] The 187th made successful combat parachute assaults near the towns of Sukchon and Sunchon, north of the North Korean capital of Pyongyang, as part of the Battle of Yongju. The published purpose of that drop was to capture members of the North Korean Government fleeing Pyongyang and also to free American POWs being moved towards the Chinese border, however, neither objective was realized. The regiment later fought against North Korean and Chinese forces at Suan, Wonju, Kaesong, Munsan-ni, and Inje. During the winter of 1950, the 187th was caught up in the Chinese "Second Phase Offensive" and fought in the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River. The 187th led the last parachute assault in Korea on 23 March 1951 as part of Operation Tomahawk and took part in the UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive. It redeployed to Japan on 26 June 1951 where it became a strategic reserve but returned to Korea on 24 May 1952 to assist in the suppression of the prisoner rebellion at the Geoje POW Camp, where prisoners had forcibly seized and held Brigadier General Francis Dodd, camp commandant, hostage for four days from 7 May 1952. After this, it once more returned to Japan on 18 October 1952 and made its final return to Korea on 22 June 1953. The unit returned to the United States in July 1955.

Four members of the 187th were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions in the Korean War: Corporal Lester Hammond, Jr.(KIA), Corporal Rodolfo P. Hernandez(WIA), Corporal Joe R. Baldonado(KIA) and Private First Class Richard G. Wilson(KIA).[82]

Operation Gyroscope and First inactivation

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The 11th Airborne Division was sent to Germany in early 1956 as part of Operation Gyroscope, to replace the 5th Infantry Division stationed in Augsburg and Munich. As the division was en route, the 187th RCT was relocated to Fort Campbell, taking over the camps that the 11th had recently vacated. In July that year the 187th, along with the 508th ARC, was transferred to the newly reactivated 101st Airborne Division.

As the American Army began to restructure its organization (known as the Pentomic Concept), the battalions of the 187th were reorganized as Airborne Battle Groups. In early 1957 the lineage of Company A, 187th AIR was redesignated as HHC, 1st Airborne Battle Group, 187th Infantry and administratively transferred (less personnel and equipment) to Augsburg to join its former parent formation, where it was formed from the existing personnel and equipment of the 11th Airborne Division.[83] HHC, 2d Airborne Battle Group, 187th Infantry, formed from the lineage of Company B, 187th AIR remained with the 101st until 1964[84] while the 3d Battalion was inactivated.[85] The 11th Division was itself inactivated in Augsburg on 1 July 1958, being reorganized and reflagged as the 24th Infantry Division. The 1st ABG, 187th Infantry and the 1st ABG, 503d Infantry, retained their Airborne designations and jump status within the 24th until both groups rotated back to the US for assignment to the 82d Airborne Division at Fort Bragg, NC.[86]

11th Air Assault Division (Test)

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11th Air Assault Division (Test) SSI
 
11th Air Assault Division (Test) soldiers load an MGR-3 Little John missile into a CH-47A Chinook for rapid delivery and emplacement exercise

In 1960, Lt. General Gordon B. Rogers chaired the Army Aircraft Requirements Review Board. It recommended selection of the UH-1 Huey and CH-47 Chinook helicopters as primary airlift capability for the U.S. Army. The board also recommended that an operational use study be considered and mentioned the possibility of creating a unit to test operational concepts.[87] Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara selected Lt. Gen. Hamilton H. Howze, the Army's first director of aviation, to implement the study. McNamara handpicked the board members and prevented Secretary of the Army Elvis Jacob Stahr Jr., in what many considered a slap in the face, from nominating anyone.[88][89]

The Howze Board released its findings on August 20, 1962. It proposed huge changes in Army doctrine:[90]: 21 

Adoption of the Army of the airmobile concept—however imperfectly it may be described and justified in this report—is necessary and desirable. In some respects the transition is inevitable, just as was that from animal mobility to motor.

To test the concept of helicopter assault, the 11th Airborne Division was reactivated at Fort Benning on 1 February 1963 and redesignated as the 11th Air Assault Division (Test) as a unit of the Regular Army.[91] The 10th Air Transport Brigade was formed around an existing aviation battalion at Fort Benning[92] to manage and fly the helicopters assigned to the division.[93] The 11th Aviation Group was created, consisting of the 227th, 228th, and 229th Aviation Battalions. Elements of its original combat units, the 187th Infantry, the 188th Infantry and the 511th Infantry, were reformed under the new division.[91][94] The group also included the 11th Aviation Company (General Support), 17th Aviation Company (Airmobile Light), and 478th Aviation Company (Heavy Helicopter).[95]

Under the leadership of Major General Charles W. G. Rich, the Test Director, and Brigadier General Harry W. O. Kinnard, the Division Commander, the group developed an organizational structure and plans for a unit that could move one-third of the division's infantry battalions and supporting units in one single helicopter lift.[96]

The 11th Air Assault Division developed and refined air assault tactics and the equipment required to operate effectively in the role. The 187th and 188th tested helicopters during various exercises, ranging from command and control maneuvers to scouting, screening and aerial resupply, to assess their ability to perform as combat aircraft.[97] In September 1963, Air Assault I exercises tested the Airmobility concept at the battalion level at Fort Stewart in Georgia. Air Assault II, a much larger exercise, was conducted across two states in October 1964. The 11th Air Assault Division operated against the 82nd Airborne Division and the 11th thoroughly dominated the exercise.[98] The 11th was not constituted as a full division during the test period. Although the intent was to create three air assault brigades, the test division included an air assault brigade (which was also parachute-qualified), an airmobile brigade, and both ground and a new air artillery element provided by helicopters known as aerial rocket artillery (ARA).

When the test was concluded, the assets of the 11th Air Assault Division (Test), the 10th Air Transport Brigade, and the 2nd Infantry Division were merged into a single unit. On 29 June 1965, the colors and subordinate unit designations of the 1st Cavalry Division were transferred from its post in Korea to Fort Benning.[91] On 3 July 1965, the 11th Air Assault Division (Test) was inactivated and its colors cased. The 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile)[99] colors were moved onto the field at Doughboy Stadium and passed to the commander of the former 11th Air Assault Division, Major General Kinnard.[100] At the same time the personnel and units of the 1st Cavalry Division that remained in Korea were reflagged as a new 2nd Infantry Division. On 29 July 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) to Vietnam.[101]: 30 [98][102][103]

Air Assault Badge

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Air Assault Badge (obsolete)

An earlier predecessor to the current Air Assault Badge, the original Air Assault Badge was worn by troops of 11th who qualified for it by making three helicopter rappels from 60 feet (18 m) and three from 120 feet (37 m). Soldiers were also required to be knowledgeable of aircraft safety procedures; familiar with aircraft orientation; proficient in hand and arm signals and combat assault operations; able to prepare, inspect and rig equipment for external sling loads; and able to lash down equipment inside helicopters. The badge was first awarded in early 1964 and was authorized for wear by soldiers within the 11th Air Assault Division (Test).[104]

Twenty-first century

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11th Airborne Division soldiers carry equipment through a forest at Delta Junction, Alaska, February 2024.
 
11th Airborne soldiers training near Utqiagvik, Alaska, February 2024.
 
Cold Weather All-Terrain Vehicle
 
Spartan paratroopers conduct arctic airborne insertion training in Alaska (4:51)

In May 2022, during a hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee, Army Secretary Christine Wormuth and Army Chief of Staff General James McConville announced that U.S. Army Alaska would be reflagged as the 11th Airborne Division. According to Wormuth and McConville, the goals of the redesignation are to give the Alaska-based forces a better sense of purpose and identity during a time of a spike in suicides. The redesignation is also meant to give a focus to the Army's Arctic strategy. U.S. Senator Dan Sullivan of Alaska said "This is a historic development for our Alaska-based military, redesignating U.S. Army Alaska under the 11th Airborne Division banner presents a dual opportunity for our country—renewing the spirit and purpose of our Alaska-based soldiers by connecting them with this division's proud and storied history, and better fulfilling America's role as an Arctic nation."[105] Major General Brian S. Eifler, the first 11th Airborne Division commanding general since reactivation, shared with the press the basic outline of the division stating, "There's no other formation that's going to look like it, nor have the same mission."[106]

On June 6, 2022, during separate ceremonies, the 1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team and 4th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Airborne), 25th Infantry Division were reflagged to the 1st Infantry Brigade Combat Team and 2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Airborne), 11th Airborne Division respectively. All units from the former U.S. Army Alaska were absorbed under the new division. It was also announced that the 1st Infantry Brigade would divest its Strykers. Following these changes, the brigade would test several new vehicles to include the Cold-Weather All-Terrain Vehicle (CATV) to replace the former Strykers. The division's 2nd Brigade would remain largely unchanged.[107]

According to MG Eifler, the division will take time to be fully realized, but force structure currently consists of the following units:[106][108][109][110][111]

  11th Airborne Division "Arctic Angels"

Along with the reactivation of the 11th Airborne Division, on 25 April 2022 the G-1 of the U.S. Army authorized the wear of the Arctic Tab by soldiers assigned to organizations in Alaska as a temporary wear tab with specific SSIs.[112] This means 11th Airborne Division soldiers will be the first U.S. Army unit to be authorized two unit designation tabs with their SSI, the Airborne Tab and Arctic Tab.[113][114]

Previous commanders

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Division Activated - February 1943

Division Inactivated - June 1958

Division Reactivated as Air Assault Testing Division

U.S. Army Alaska redesignated as 11th Airborne Division - June 2022

Notable members

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  1. ^ DSC recipients: Colonel Irvin R. Schimmelpfennig III (KIA), Major General Joseph M. Swing, Private First Class Joseph Siedenburg (KIA), 1st Lieutenant Henry G. Hynds, Major Charles P. Loeper (KIA), Colonel Robert H. Soule, Sergeant Pat Berardi/Bernardi (KIA), 2nd Lieutenant Mills T. Lowe, Sergeant Edward B. Reed and Tech Sergeant Robert C. Steele (KIA)

Footnotes

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  1. ^ a b Babb, Carla (6 June 2022). "Army Resurrects WWII-Era Airborne Division in Alaska". VOA. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  2. ^ "Special Unit Designations". United States Army Center of Military History. 21 April 2010. Archived from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
  3. ^ http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/cbtchron/abdcomp.html Archived 13 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine Component Elements of Airborne Divisions in World War II
  4. ^ "Army Creating Second Paratrooper Division as Service Forges New Identity for Arctic Troops". Military.com. 5 May 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
  5. ^ Flanagan, p. 6.
  6. ^ Harclerode, p. 197.
  7. ^ Harclerode, p. 107.
  8. ^ Flanagan, p. 31.
  9. ^ Flanagan, p. 305.
  10. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 15.
  11. ^ Devlin, p. 204.
  12. ^ a b c Devlin, p. 246.
  13. ^ Flanagan, p. 98.
  14. ^ Flanagan, p. 99.
  15. ^ Devlin, pp 212, 246.
  16. ^ Huston, p. 98.
  17. ^ "Moore County Airport History". Moore County Airport. Archived from the original on 21 May 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2008.
  18. ^ Flanagan, p. 100.
  19. ^ Devlin, p. 247.
  20. ^ a b c d Huston, p. 136.
  21. ^ Huston, p. 137.
  22. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 309.
  23. ^ Harclerode, p. 603.
  24. ^ Devlin, p. 557.
  25. ^ Devlin, pp. 557–558.
  26. ^ Flanagan, p. 310.
  27. ^ Flanagan, pp. 311–312.
  28. ^ Tugwell, p. 278.
  29. ^ Tugwell, p. 279.
  30. ^ Flanagan, p. 313. Tugwell states that there were 29 transport planes, while Flanagan writes that there were 39.
  31. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 313.
  32. ^ Devlin, p. 562.
  33. ^ United States Army, Centre of Military History (16 July 2007). "Medal of Honor Recipients World War II (A-F)". United States Army. Archived from the original on 16 June 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
  34. ^ Devlin, pp. 563–564.
  35. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 314.
  36. ^ Harclerode, pp. 613–614.
  37. ^ Harclerode, pp. 614–615.
  38. ^ Harclerode, p. 615.
  39. ^ a b Harclerode, p. 617.
  40. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 315.
  41. ^ Robert Ross Smith (16 July 2007). "Triumph in the Philippines". United States Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 23 October 2008.
  42. ^ Flanagan, p. 316.
  43. ^ Devlin, p. 573.
  44. ^ Harclerode, p. 620.
  45. ^ Devlin, p. 574.
  46. ^ Holm, Jeremy (7 May 2022). "Colonel Irvin R. Schimmelpfennig III". The 511TH Parachute Infantry Regiment.
  47. ^ Harclerode, p. 621.
  48. ^ United States Army, Centre of Military History (16 July 2007). "Medal of Honor Recipients World War II (M-S)". United States Army. Archived from the original on 31 May 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
  49. ^ a b Harclerode, pp. 623–624.
  50. ^ Harclerode, p. 623.
  51. ^ Holm, Jeremy (7 May 2022). "Colonel Haugen, Orin D. "Hard Rock"". The 511TH Parachute Infantry Regiment.
  52. ^ Flanagan, p. 327.
  53. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 328.
  54. ^ Devlin, pp. 599–600.
  55. ^ Devlin, p. 600.
  56. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 330.
  57. ^ Harclerode, p. 631.
  58. ^ a b Harclerode, p. 632.
  59. ^ Flanagan, p. 332.
  60. ^ Flanagan, p. 333.
  61. ^ Devlin, pp. 609–610.
  62. ^ Devlin, p. 608.
  63. ^ a b c Devlin, p. 640.
  64. ^ Harclerode, p. 612.
  65. ^ Devlin, pp. 640–641.
  66. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 335.
  67. ^ Robert Ross Smith (16 July 2007). "Triumph in the Philippines". United States Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 23 October 2008.
  68. ^ Flanagan, p. 336.
  69. ^ Devlin, p. 643.
  70. ^ Harclerode, p. 635.
  71. ^ Harclerode, p. 636.
  72. ^ a b Flanagan, p. 337.
  73. ^ Flanagan, p. 338.
  74. ^ a b c d e Army Battle Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths, Final Report (Statistics and Accounting Branch, Office of the Adjutant General, 1 June 1953), pp. 88–89
  75. ^ "11th Airborne Division". US Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
  76. ^ Skate, p. 202.
  77. ^ Video: Allied Forces Land In Japan (1945). Universal Newsreel. 1945. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
  78. ^ a b c d Flanagan, pp 340–341.
  79. ^ Huston, p. 230.
  80. ^ Huston, p. 231.
  81. ^ Devlin, p. 649.
  82. ^ a b c d Flanagan, p. 345.
  83. ^ "US Army Center of Military History. Lineage And Honors Information: 1st Battalion, 187th Infantry". Archived from the original on 12 June 2010. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
  84. ^ "US Army Centre of Military History. Lineage And Honors Information: 2nd Battalion, 187th Infantry". Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
  85. ^ "US Army Centre of Military History. Lineage And Honors Information: 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry". Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
  86. ^ Flanagan, p. 372.
  87. ^ Conceptual Underpinnings of the Air Assault Concept, The Hogaboom, Rogers and Howze Boards Archived 2011-02-17 at the Wayback Machine, by Mark A. Olinger, published by the Institute of Land Warfare, Association of the United States Army, 2006, p. 5
  88. ^ Williams, James W. (September 2005). A History of Army Aviation: From Its Beginnings to the War on Terror. iUniverse. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-595-36608-8. Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  89. ^ Spiller, Roger J, ed. (1 January 1992). "Combined Arms in Battle Since 1939". United States Army Center of Military History. Archived from the original on 13 October 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2009.
  90. ^ Stanton, Shelby L. (1987). Anatomy of a Division: 1st Cav in Vietnam. Novato, CA: Presidio. ISBN 9780891412595.
  91. ^ a b c Flanagan, p. 376
  92. ^ "1st Cavalry Division History - Ft. Benning, Airmobile 1965". www.first-team.us.
  93. ^ Stanton, Shelby. "Lessons Learned or Lost: Air Cavalry and Airmobility." Military Review, January 1989 (pp 74–86), p. 79.
  94. ^ "1st Cavalry Division History - Ft. Benning, Airmobile 1965". www.first-team.us.
  95. ^ "General Orders No. 40" (PDF). U.S. Army. 20 November 2019. p. 4.
  96. ^ Stockfisch, Jacob A. (1994). The 1962 Howze Board and Army Combat Developments. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.: 22–23 
  97. ^ Flanagan, p. 377.
  98. ^ a b "11th Air Assault Division (Test)". www.armyaviationmagazine.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
  99. ^ "Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion, 1st Cavalry Division | Lineage and Honors | U.S. Army Center of Military History".
  100. ^ "1st Cavalry Division History - Ft. Benning, Airmobile 1965". www.first-team.us. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  101. ^ Lepore, Herbert P. (1994). "The Coming of Age: The Role of the Helicopter in the Vietnam War". Army History (29): 29–36. JSTOR 26304086. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  102. ^ Flanagan, p. 378.
  103. ^ http://www.first-team.us/tableaux/chapt_07/ Reflagging the Division for Vietnam
  104. ^ ORIGINAL AIR ASSAULT BADGE, ranger25.com, archived 30 April 2013, last accessed 10 May 2022
  105. ^ Press Release. "ARMY TO REESTABLISH 11TH AIRBORNE DIVISION, AMERICA'S THIRD, IN ALASKA". sullivan.senate.gov. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  106. ^ a b How — and why — the 11th Airborne Division is being resurrected in Alaska, ArmyTimes, by Davis Winkie, dated 25 May 2022, last accessed 29 May 2022
  107. ^ "Army activates Arctic-focused 11th Airborne Division in Alaska, cuts Strykers". Stars and Stripes. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  108. ^ New Army 11th Airborne Division Gets Stand Up Date, Force Outline, Military.com, Military News, by Steve Beynon, dated 18 May 2022, last accessed 20 May 2022
  109. ^ Why 11th Airborne Division?, Army.mil, by SSG Christopher Dennis, dated 16 May 2022, last accessed 29 May 2022
  110. ^ Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson > Units > Army Archived 12 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, last accessed 29 May 2022
  111. ^ 11th Airborne Division, Units, Official 11th Airborne Division website, last accessed 11 September 2022
  112. ^ SUBJECT: United States Army Arctic Tab and SUBJECT: Guidance for Wear of the Arctic Tab with Shoulder Sleeve Insignia; The Institute of Heraldry, Department of the Army; dated 26 April 2022 and 25 April 2022 respectively; last accessed 9 May 2022
  113. ^ 11th Airborne Division Insignia, Defense Visual Information Distribution Service, by Benjamin Wilson (U.S. Army Alaska), dated 5 May 2022, last accessed 10 May 2022
  114. ^ First Look at the Army's New Patch for its Newest Airborne Division, Military.com, by Steve Beynon, dated 6 May 2022, last accessed 10 May 2022

References

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  • Blair, Clay (1985). Ridgway's Paratroopers–The American Airborne In World War II. The Dial Press. ISBN 1-55750-299-4.
  • Devlin, Gerard M. (1979). Paratrooper–The Saga Of Parachute And Glider Combat Troops During World War II. Robson Books. ISBN 0-312-59652-9.
  • Flanagan, E. M. Jr (2002). Airborne–A Combat History Of American Airborne Forces. The Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 0-89141-688-9.
  • Harclerode, Peter (2005). Wings Of War–Airborne Warfare 1918–1945. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-304-36730-3.
  • Holm, Jeremy (2019). When Angels Fall: The 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment in World War II. Amazon. ISBN 9781087303185.
  • Holm, Jeremy (2022). Down From Heaven: The 11th Airborne Division in World War II - Volume 1 Camp Toccoa Through Leyte Campaign. Amazon. ISBN 9798843435660.
  • Huston, James A. (1998). Out Of The Blue–U.S Army Airborne Operations In World War II. Purdue University Press. ISBN 1-55753-148-X.
  • Skate, John Ray (1994). The Invasion of Japan: Alternative to the Bomb. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-354-4.
  • Tugwell, Maurice (1978). Assault From The Sky–The History of Airborne Warfare. Westbridge Books. ISBN 0-7153-9204-2.
  • Weeks, John (1971). Airborne To Battle–A History Of Airborne Warfare 1918–1971. William Kimber & Co Ltd. ISBN 0-7183-0262-1.
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