Wikipedia

User:Madhero88/Complications of hypertension

< User:Madhero88

Complications of hypertension are clinical outcomes that result from persistent elevation of blood pressure.[1] Hypertension is a risk factor for all clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis since it is a risk factor for atherosclerosis it self.[2][3][4][5][6] It is an independent predisposing factor for heart failure,[7][8] coronary artery disease,[9][10][11] stroke[1], renal disease,[12][13][14] and peripheral arterial disease.[15][16] it is the most important risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, in industrialized countries.[17]

Complications affecting the Heart

edit
Main article: Left ventricular hypertrophy
Main article: Hypertensive cardiomyopathy
Main article: Myocardial infarction

Hypertensive heart disease is the result of structural and functional adaptations[18] leading to left ventricular hypertrophy,[19][20][21] diastolic dysfunction,[20][18] CHF, abnormalities of blood flow due to atherosclerotic coronary artery disease[18] and microvascular disease,[19][9][10] and cardiac arrhythmias.[19] Individuals with left ventricular hypertrophy are at increased risk for, stroke,[22] CHF,[22] and sudden death[22]. Aggressive control of hypertension can regress or reverse left ventricular hypertrophy and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.[23] [24][25][26] left ventricular hypertrophy are seen in 25% of the hypertensive patients and can easily be diagnosed by using echocardiography.[27] Underlying mechanisms of hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy are of 2 types: mechanical, mainly leading to myocyte hypertrophy; neuro-hormonal, mainly resulting in a fibroblastic proliferation.[27]

Abnormalities of diastolic function, ranging from asymptomatic heart disease[28][29][30] to overt heart failure,[31][32] are common in hypertensive patients. Patients with diastolic heart failure have a preserved ejection fraction, which is a measure of systolic function.[33][34] Diastolic dysfunction is an early consequence of hypertension-related heart disease and is exacerbated by left ventricular hypertrophy[34][20] and ischemia.

Complications affecting the Brain

edit
Main article: Hypertensive encephalopathy
Main article: Cerebrovascular accident

Hypertension is an important risk factor for brain infarction and hemorrhage.[35][36][37][1][10][38][39][40] Approximately 85% of strokes are due to infarction and the remainder are due to hemorrhage, either intracerebral hemorrhage or subarachnoid hemorrhage.[41] The incidence of stroke rises progressively with increasing blood pressure levels, particularly systolic blood pressure in individuals >65 years. Treatment of hypertension convincingly decreases the incidence of both ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes.[41]

Hypertension is also associated with impaired cognition in an aging population,[42][43][43][44][45] Hypertension-related cognitive impairment and dementia may be a consequence of a single infarct due to occlusion of a "strategic" larger vessel[46] or multiple lacunar infarcts due to occlusive small vessel disease resulting in subcortical white matter ischemia.[47][47][45][47][43] Several clinical trials suggest that antihypertensive therapy has a beneficial effect on cognitive function, although this remains an active area of investigation.[48][49][50]

Cerebral blood flow remains unchanged over a wide range of arterial pressures (mean arterial pressure of 50–150 mmHg) through a process termed autoregulation of blood flow.[51] Signs and symptoms of hypertensive encephalopathy may include severe headache, nausea and vomiting (often of a projectile nature), focal neurologic signs, and alterations in mental status. Untreated, hypertensive encephalopathy may progress to stupor, coma, seizures, and death within hours.[52][53][54][55] It is important to distinguish hypertensive encephalopathy from other neurologic syndromes that may be associated with hypertension, e.g., cerebral ischemia, hemorrhagic or thrombotic stroke, seizure disorder, mass lesions, pseudotumor cerebri, delirium tremens, meningitis, acute intermittent porphyria, traumatic or chemical injury to the brain, and uremic encephalopathy.[41]

Complications affecting the Eye

edit
Main article: Hypertensive retinopathy

Hypertensive retinopathy is a condition characterized by a spectrum of retinal vascular signs in people with elevated blood pressure.[56] It was first described by Liebreich in 1859.[57] The retinal circulation undergoes a series of pathophysiological changes in response to elevated blood pressure.[58] In the initial, vasoconstrictive stage, there is vasospasm and an increase in retinal arteriolar tone owing to local autoregulatory mechanisms. This stage is seen clinically as a generalized narrowing of the retinal arterioles. Persistently elevated blood pressure leads to intimal thickening, hyperplasia of the media wall, and hyaline degeneration in the subsequent, sclerotic, stage. This stage corresponds to more severe generalized and focal areas of arteriolar narrowing, changes in the arteriolar and venular junctions, and alterations in the arteriolar light reflex (i.e., widening and accentuation of the central light reflex, or "copper wiring").[59]

This is followed by an exudative stage, in which there is disruption of the blood–retina barrier, necrosis of the smooth muscles and endothelial cells, exudation of blood and lipids, and retinal ischemia. These changes are manifested in the retina as microaneurysms, hemorrhages, hard exudates, and cotton-wool spots. Swelling of the optic disk may occur at this time and usually indicates severely elevated blood pressure (i.e., malignant hypertension). Because better methods for the control of blood pressure are now available in the general population, malignant hypertension is rarely seen. In contrast, other retinal vascular complications of hypertension, such as macroaneurysms and branch-vein occlusions, are not uncommon in patients with chronically elevated blood pressure. These stages of hypertensive retinopathy however, may not be sequential.[60][58] For example, signs of retinopathy that reflect the exudative stage, such as retinal hemorrhage or microaneurysm, may be seen in eyes that do not have features of the sclerotic stage,[58] The exudative signs are nonspecific, since they are seen in diabetes and other conditions.

Complications affecting the Kidneys

edit
Main article: Hypertensive nephropathy

Hypertension is a risk factor for renal injury and ESRD.[61][62][63][64] [65][66][67] Renal risk appears to be more closely related to systolic than to diastolic blood pressure,[68][69] and black men are at greater risk than white men for developing ESRD at every level of blood pressure.[70][71][72][73][74]

The atherosclerotic, hypertension-related vascular lesions in the kidney primarily affect the preglomerular arterioles,[75][76][68] resulting in ischemic changes in the glomeruli and postglomerular structures.[41] Glomerular injury may also be a consequence of direct damage to the glomerular capillaries due to glomerular hyperperfusion. Glomerular pathology progresses to glomerulosclerosis,[77][78] and eventually the renal tubules may also become ischemic and gradually atrophic. The renal lesion associated with malignant hypertension consists of fibrinoid necrosis of the afferent arterioles,[79][80][81][82][83][84][85] sometimes extending into the glomerulus, and may result in focal necrosis of the glomerular tuft.[86][87][81]

Clinically, macroalbuminuria (a random urine albumin/creatinine ratio > 300 mg/g) or microalbuminuria (a random urine albumin/creatinine ratio 30–300 mg/g) are early markers of renal injury. These are also risk factors for renal disease progression and for cardiovascular disease.[41]

Complications affecting the Arteries

edit

In addition to contributing to the pathogenesis of hypertension, blood vessels may be a target organ for atherosclerotic disease secondary to long-standing elevated blood pressure. Hypertensive patients with arterial disease of the lower extremities are at increased risk for future cardiovascular disease. Although patients with stenotic lesions of the lower extremities may be asymptomatic, intermittent claudication is the classic symptom of PAD. This is characterized by aching pain in the calves or buttocks while walking that is relieved by rest. The ankle-brachial index is a useful approach for evaluating PAD and is defined as the ratio of noninvasively assessed ankle to brachial (arm) systolic blood pressure. An ankle-brachial index < 0.90 is considered diagnostic of PAD and is associated with >50% stenosis in at least one major lower limb vessel. Several studies suggest that an ankle-brachial index < 0.80 is associated with elevated blood pressure, particularly systolic blood pressure.

References

edit
  1. ^ a b c White WB (May 2009). "Defining the problem of treating the patient with hypertension and arthritis pain". The American Journal of Medicine. 122 (5 Suppl): S3–9. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.03.002. PMID 19393824. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) Cite error: The named reference "pmid19393824" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  2. ^ Insull W (January 2009). "The pathology of atherosclerosis: plaque development and plaque responses to medical treatment". The American Journal of Medicine. 122 (1 Suppl): S3–S14. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2008.10.013. PMID 19110086. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  3. ^ Liapis CD, Avgerinos ED, Kadoglou NP, Kakisis JD (May 2009). "What a vascular surgeon should know and do about atherosclerotic risk factors". [[Journal of Vascular Surgery : Official Publication, the Society for Vascular Surgery [and] International Society for Cardiovascular Surgery, North American Chapter]]. 49 (5): 1348–54. doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2008.12.046. PMID 19394559. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Riccioni G (2009). "The effect of antihypertensive drugs on carotid intima media thickness: an up-to-date review". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 16 (8): 988–96. doi:10.2174/092986709787581923. PMID 19275607. Retrieved 2009-06-20.
  5. ^ Safar ME, Jankowski P (February 2009). "Central blood pressure and hypertension: role in cardiovascular risk assessment". Clinical Science (London, England : 1979). 116 (4): 273–82. doi:10.1042/CS20080072. PMID 19138169. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  6. ^ Werner CM, Böhm M (June 2008). "The therapeutic role of RAS blockade in chronic heart failure". Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease. 2 (3): 167–77. doi:10.1177/1753944708091777. PMID 19124420. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  7. ^ Gaddam KK, Verma A, Thompson M, Amin R, Ventura H (May 2009). "Hypertension and cardiac failure in its various forms". The Medical Clinics of North America. 93 (3): 665–80. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2009.02.005. PMID 19427498. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Reisin E, Jack AV (May 2009). "Obesity and hypertension: mechanisms, cardio-renal consequences, and therapeutic approaches". The Medical Clinics of North America. 93 (3): 733–51. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2009.02.010. PMID 19427502. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  9. ^ a b Agabiti-Rosei E (September 2008). "From macro- to microcirculation: benefits in hypertension and diabetes". Journal of Hypertension. 26 (Suppl 3): S15–21. doi:10.1097/01.hjh.0000334602.71005.52. PMID 18815511. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) Cite error: The named reference "pmid18815511" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  10. ^ a b c Agabiti-Rosei E (September 2008). "From macro- to microcirculation: benefits in hypertension and diabetes". Journal of Hypertension. Supplement : Official Journal of the International Society of Hypertension. 26 (3): S15–9. PMID 19363848.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  11. ^ Murphy BP, Stanton T, Dunn FG (May 2009). "Hypertension and myocardial ischemia". The Medical Clinics of North America. 93 (3): 681–95. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2009.02.003. PMID 19427499. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Tylicki L, Rutkowski B (February 2003). "[Hypertensive nephropathy: pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment]". Polski Merkuriusz Lekarski : Organ Polskiego Towarzystwa Lekarskiego (in Polish). 14 (80): 168–73. PMID 12728683.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  13. ^ Truong LD, Shen SS, Park MH, Krishnan B (February 2009). "Diagnosing nonneoplastic lesions in nephrectomy specimens". Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. 133 (2): 189–200. doi:10.5858/133.2.189. PMID 19195963. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Tracy RE, White S (February 2002). "A method for quantifying adrenocortical nodular hyperplasia at autopsy: some use of the method in illuminating hypertension and atherosclerosis". Annals of Diagnostic Pathology. 6 (1): 20–9. doi:10.1053/adpa.2002.30606. PMID 11842376. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  15. ^ Aronow WS (August 2008). "Hypertension and the older diabetic". Clinics in Geriatric Medicine. 24 (3): 489–501, vi–vii. doi:10.1016/j.cger.2008.03.001. PMID 18672184. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  16. ^ Gardner AW, Afaq A (2008). "Management of lower extremity peripheral arterial disease". Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation and Prevention. 28 (6): 349–57. doi:10.1097/HCR.0b013e31818c3b96. PMC 2743684. PMID 19008688. Retrieved 2009-06-20.
  17. ^ Novo S, Lunetta M, Evola S, Novo G (January 2009). "Role of ARBs in the blood hypertension therapy and prevention of cardiovascular events". Current Drug Targets. 10 (1): 20–5. doi:10.2174/138945009787122897. PMID 19149532. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ a b c Steinmetz M, Nickenig G (April 2009). "[Cardiac sequelae of hypertension]". Der Internist (in German). 50 (4): 397–409. doi:10.1007/s00108-008-2289-3. PMID 19343394. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  19. ^ a b c Hennersdorf MG, Strauer BE (March 2006). "[Hypertension and heart]". Medizinische Klinik (Munich, Germany : 1983) (in German). 101 (Suppl 1): 27–30. PMID 16802514.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  20. ^ a b c Hennersdorf MG, Strauer BE (March 2007). "[The heart in hypertension]". Der Internist (in German). 48 (3): 236–45. doi:10.1007/s00108-006-1762-0. PMID 17260148. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  21. ^ Motz W (October 2004). "[Right ventricle in arterial hypertension]". Der Internist (in German). 45 (10): 1108–16. doi:10.1007/s00108-004-1273-9. PMID 15351931. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  22. ^ a b c Wachtell K, Devereux RB, Lyle PA, Okin PM, Gerdts E (December 2008). "The left atrium, atrial fibrillation, and the risk of stroke in hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy". Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease. 2 (6): 507–13. doi:10.1177/1753944708093846. PMID 19124445. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Petrović D, Stojimirović B (2008). "[Left ventricular hypertrophy in patients treated with regular hemodialyses]". Medicinski Pregled (in Serbian). 61 (7–8): 369–74. doi:10.2298/MPNS0808369P. PMID 19097374.
  24. ^ Cuspidi C, Sala C, Zanchetti A (December 2007). "Management of hypertension in patients with left ventricular hypertrophy". Current Hypertension Reports. 9 (6): 498–505. doi:10.1007/s11906-007-0091-6. PMID 18367014.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Simko F (September 2007). "Statins: a perspective for left ventricular hypertrophy treatment". European Journal of Clinical Investigation. 37 (9): 681–91. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2362.2007.01837.x. PMID 17696957. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  26. ^ Wachtell K, Devereux RB, Lyle AP (August 2007). "The effect of angiotensin receptor blockers for preventing atrial fibrillation". Current Hypertension Reports. 9 (4): 278–83. doi:10.1007/s11906-007-0051-1. PMID 17686377.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ a b Herpin D (March 1999). "[Impact of arterial hypertension on the heart]". La Revue Du Praticien (in French). 49 (5): 491–4. PMID 10358398.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  28. ^ Parekh N, Maisel AS (March 2009). "Utility of B-natriuretic peptide in the evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function and diastolic heart failure". Current Opinion in Cardiology. 24 (2): 155–60. doi:10.1097/HCO.0b013e328320d82a. PMID 19532102. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  29. ^ Biria M, Howard PA, Vacek J (2008). "Do statins have a role in the management of diastolic dysfunction?". American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs : Drugs, Devices, and Other Interventions. 8 (5): 297–303. doi:10.2165/00129784-200808050-00002. PMID 18828641.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Caserta MA, Milan A, Naso D; et al. (May 2007). "[Left ventricular diastolic function and dysfunction: a single cardiac target for various systemic diseases]". Giornale Italiano Di Cardiologia (2006) (in Italian). 8 (5): 279–98. PMID 17650687. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Verma A, Solomon SD (May 2009). "Diastolic dysfunction as a link between hypertension and heart failure". The Medical Clinics of North America. 93 (3): 647–64. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2009.02.013. PMID 19427497. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  32. ^ Ellis CR, Di Salvo T (2007). "Myocarditis: basic and clinical aspects". Cardiology in Review. 15 (4): 170–7. doi:10.1097/CRD.0b013e31806450c4. PMID 17575480. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
  33. ^ Okoshi K, Guimarães JF, Di Muzio BP, Fernandes AA, Okoshi MP (March 2007). "[Diabetic cardiomyopathy]". Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia e Metabologia (in Portuguese). 51 (2): 160–7. doi:10.1590/s0004-27302007000200004. PMID 17505622. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ a b Fukuta H, Little WC (May 2007). "Diagnosis of diastolic heart failure". Current Cardiology Reports. 9 (3): 224–8. doi:10.1007/BF02938354. PMID 17470335.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  35. ^ Schrader J (April 2009). "[Stroke and hypertension]". Der Internist (in German). 50 (4): 423–32. doi:10.1007/s00108-008-2291-9. PMID 19308341. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  36. ^ Zeng C, Villar VA, Yu P, Zhou L, Jose PA (April 2009). "Reactive oxygen species and dopamine receptor function in essential hypertension". Clinical and Experimental Hypertension (New York, N.Y. : 1993). 31 (2): 156–78. doi:10.1080/10641960802621283. PMC 3722595. PMID 19330604.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Varon J (October 2007). "Diagnosis and management of labile blood pressure during acute cerebrovascular accidents and other hypertensive crises". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 25 (8): 949–59. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2007.02.032. PMID 17920983. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  38. ^ Sare GM, Geeganage C, Bath PM (2009). "High blood pressure in acute ischaemic stroke--broadening therapeutic horizons". Cerebrovascular Diseases (Basel, Switzerland). 27 (Suppl 1): 156–61. doi:10.1159/000200454. PMID 19342846. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Palm F, Urbanek C, Grau A (April 2009). "Infection, its treatment and the risk for stroke". Current Vascular Pharmacology. 7 (2): 146–52. doi:10.2174/157016109787455707. PMID 19355997. Retrieved 2009-06-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Tanahashi N (April 2009). "[Roles of angiotensin II receptor blockers in stroke prevention]". Nippon Rinsho. Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine (in Japanese). 67 (4): 742–9. PMID 19348237.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  41. ^ a b c d e Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. (2008). Harrison's principles of internal medicine. McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-147691-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ Iadecola C, Park L, Capone C (March 2009). "Threats to the mind: aging, amyloid, and hypertension". Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 40 (3 Suppl): S40–4. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.533638. PMC 2704500. PMID 19064785. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ a b c Erkinjuntti T, Gauthier S (2009). "The concept of vascular cognitive impairment". Frontiers of Neurology and Neuroscience. 24: 79–85. doi:10.1159/000197886. ISBN 978-3-8055-9015-0. PMID 19182465. Retrieved 2009-06-22. Cite error: The named reference "pmid19182465" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  44. ^ Birns J, Kalra L (February 2009). "Cognitive function and hypertension". Journal of Human Hypertension. 23 (2): 86–96. doi:10.1038/jhh.2008.80. PMID 18650838. Retrieved 2009-06-22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  45. ^ a b Moretti R, Torre P, Antonello RM, Manganaro D, Vilotti C, Pizzolato G (2008). "Risk factors for vascular dementia: hypotension as a key point". Vascular Health and Risk Management. 4 (2): 395–402. doi:10.2147/vhrm.s2434. PMC 2496988. PMID 18561514.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  46. ^ Solans-Laqué R, Bosch-Gil JA, Molina-Catenario CA, Ortega-Aznar A, Alvarez-Sabin J, Vilardell-Tarres M (November 2008). "Stroke and multi-infarct dementia as presenting symptoms of giant cell arteritis: report of 7 cases and review of the literature". Medicine. 87 (6): 335–44. doi:10.1097/MD.0b013e3181908e96. PMID 19011505. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ a b c Pantoni L, Poggesi A, Inzitari D (2009). "Cognitive decline and dementia related to cerebrovascular diseases: some evidence and concepts". Cerebrovascular Diseases (Basel, Switzerland). 27 (Suppl 1): 191–6. doi:10.1159/000200459. PMID 19342851. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ Zekry D (2009). "Is it possible to treat vascular dementia?". Frontiers of Neurology and Neuroscience. 24: 95–106. doi:10.1159/000197888. ISBN 978-3-8055-9015-0. PMID 19182467. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
  49. ^ Viswanathan A, Rocca WA, Tzourio C (January 2009). "Vascular risk factors and dementia: how to move forward?". Neurology. 72 (4): 368–74. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000341271.90478.8e. PMC 2677504. PMID 19171835. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Sorrentino G, Migliaccio R, Bonavita V (2008). "Treatment of vascular dementia: the route of prevention". European Neurology. 60 (5): 217–23. doi:10.1159/000151696. PMID 18756085. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  51. ^ Hall, John E.; Guyton, Arthur C. (2006). Textbook of medical physiology. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. p. 762. ISBN 0-7216-0240-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ^ Müller-Wiefel DE (August 1988). "[The hypertensive crisis in childhood]". Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift (in German). 100 (16): 547–55. PMID 3055687.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  53. ^ Isles CG (February 1995). "Management of hypertensive crises". Scottish Medical Journal. 40 (1): 23–5. doi:10.1177/003693309504000110. PMID 7604239.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  54. ^ Refai D, Botros JA, Strom RG, Derdeyn CP, Sharma A, Zipfel GJ (December 2008). "Spontaneous isolated convexity subarachnoid hemorrhage: presentation, radiological findings, differential diagnosis, and clinical course". Journal of Neurosurgery. 109 (6): 1034–41. doi:10.3171/JNS.2008.109.12.1034. PMID 19035716. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ O'Hara McCoy H (February 2008). "Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome: an emerging clinical entity in adult, pediatric, and obstetric critical care". Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners. 20 (2): 100–6. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7599.2007.00292.x. PMID 18271765. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  56. ^ Walsh JB (October 1982). "Hypertensive retinopathy. Description, classification, and prognosis". Ophthalmology. 89 (10): 1127–31. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(82)34664-3. PMID 7155523.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  57. ^ Liebreich R. Ophthalmoskopischer Befund bei Morbus Brightii. Albrecht von Graefes Arch Ophthalmol 1859; 5: 265–268.
  58. ^ a b c Tso MO, Jampol LM (October 1982). "Pathophysiology of hypertensive retinopathy". Ophthalmology. 89 (10): 1132–45. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(82)34663-1. PMID 7155524.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  59. ^ Wong TY, Mitchell P (November 2004). "Hypertensive retinopathy". The New England Journal of Medicine. 351 (22): 2310–7. doi:10.1056/NEJMra032865. PMID 15564546. Retrieved 2009-06-24.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  60. ^ Pache M, Kube T, Wolf S, Kutschbach P (June 2002). "Do angiographic data support a detailed classification of hypertensive fundus changes?". Journal of Human Hypertension. 16 (6): 405–10. doi:10.1038/sj.jhh.1001402. PMID 12037695. Retrieved 2009-06-24.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ^ Krzesinski JM, Cohen EP (2007). "Hypertension and the kidney". Acta Clinica Belgica. 62 (1): 5–14. doi:10.1179/acb.2007.002. PMID 17451140.
  62. ^ Monhart V (May 2008). "[Diabetes mellitus, hypertension and kidney]". Vnitr̆ní Lékar̆ství (in Czech). 54 (5): 499–504, 507. PMID 18630636.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  63. ^ Hohenstein K, Watschinger B (2008). "[Hypertension and the kidney]". Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift (1946) (in German). 158 (13–14): 359–64. doi:10.1007/s10354-008-0558-3. PMID 18677585. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
  64. ^ Khosla N, Kalaitzidis R, Bakris GL (May 2009). "The kidney, hypertension, and remaining challenges". The Medical Clinics of North America. 93 (3): 697–715, Table of Contents. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2009.02.001. PMID 19427500. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  65. ^ Ponnuchamy B, Khalil RA (April 2009). "Cellular mediators of renal vascular dysfunction in hypertension". American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 296 (4): R1001–18. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.90960.2008. PMC 2698613. PMID 19225145. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  66. ^ Niang A (2008). "[Arterial hypertension and the kidney]". Dakar Médical (in French). 53 (1): 1–6. PMID 19102111.
  67. ^ Palmer BF (October 2008). "Hypertension management in patients with chronic kidney disease". Current Hypertension Reports. 10 (5): 367–73. doi:10.1007/s11906-008-0069-z. PMID 18775113.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  68. ^ a b Marín R, Gorostidi M, Fernández-Vega F, Alvarez-Navascués R (December 2005). "Systemic and glomerular hypertension and progression of chronic renal disease: the dilemma of nephrosclerosis". Kidney International. Supplement. 68 (99): S52–6. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.09910.x. PMID 16336577.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ Schmitz A (September 1997). "Microalbuminuria, blood pressure, metabolic control, and renal involvement: longitudinal studies in white non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients". American Journal of Hypertension. 10 (9 Pt 2): 189S–197S. doi:10.1016/s0895-7061(97)00152-0. PMID 9324121.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  70. ^ Lindhorst J, Alexander N, Blignaut J, Rayner B (2007). "Differences in hypertension between blacks and whites: an overview" (PDF). Cardiovascular Journal of Africa. 18 (4): 241–7. PMC 4170224. PMID 17940670. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  71. ^ Swift PA, Macgregor GA (January 2004). "Genetic variation in the epithelial sodium channel: a risk factor for hypertension in people of African origin". Advances in Renal Replacement Therapy. 11 (1): 76–86. doi:10.1053/j.arrt.2003.10.011. PMID 14730541. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  72. ^ Ergul A (July 2000). "Hypertension in black patients: an emerging role of the endothelin system in salt-sensitive hypertension". Hypertension. 36 (1): 62–7. doi:10.1161/01.hyp.36.1.62. PMID 10904013. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  73. ^ Ferrari P, Krozowski Z (April 2000). "Role of the 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in blood pressure regulation". Kidney International. 57 (4): 1374–81. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2000.00978.x. PMID 10760070. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  74. ^ Campese VM (May 1996). "The kidney in the hypertensive black". Ethnicity & Health. 1 (2): 145–51. doi:10.1080/13557858.1996.9961781. PMID 9395558.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  75. ^ Bidani AK, Griffin KA (January 2002). "Long-term renal consequences of hypertension for normal and diseased kidneys". Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension. 11 (1): 73–80. doi:10.1097/00041552-200201000-00011. PMID 11753090. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  76. ^ Johnson RJ, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Kang DH, Feig DI, Herrera-Acosta J (March 2005). "A unifying pathway for essential hypertension". American Journal of Hypertension. 18 (3): 431–40. doi:10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.08.035. PMID 15797666. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  77. ^ Kwoh C, Shannon MB, Miner JH, Shaw A (2006). "Pathogenesis of nonimmune glomerulopathies". Annual Review of Pathology. 1: 349–74. doi:10.1146/annurev.pathol.1.110304.100119. PMID 18039119. Retrieved 2009-06-23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  78. ^ Stoian M, Radulian G, Chiţac D, Simion E, Stoica V (2007). "A clinical approach in regression of glomerulosclerosis". Romanian Journal of Internal Medicine = Revue Roumaine De Médecine Interne. 45 (2): 215–8. PMID 18333378.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  79. ^ Ono H, Ono Y (November 1997). "Nephrosclerosis and hypertension". The Medical Clinics of North America. 81 (6): 1273–88. doi:10.1016/s0025-7125(05)70582-4. PMID 9356598.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  80. ^ Muirhead EE, Pitcock JA (December 1989). "Histopathology of severe renal vascular damage in blacks". Clinical Cardiology. 12 (Suppl 4): IV58–65. doi:10.1002/clc.4960121312. PMID 2620472.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  81. ^ a b Dustan HP, Curtis JJ, Luke RG, Rostand SG (December 1987). "Systemic hypertension and the kidney in black patients". The American Journal of Cardiology. 60 (17): 73I–77I. doi:10.1016/0002-9149(87)90464-4. PMID 3687809.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  82. ^ Schwartz GL, Strong CG (September 1987). "Renal parenchymal involvement in essential hypertension". The Medical Clinics of North America. 71 (5): 843–58. doi:10.1016/s0025-7125(16)30812-4. PMID 3306206.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  83. ^ Cimprich RE, Ziemba LJ, Kutz SA, Robertson JL, Cockrell B (1986). "Experimentally induced malignant hypertension in beagle dogs". Toxicologic Pathology. 14 (2): 183–7. doi:10.1177/019262338601400206. PMID 3764316.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  84. ^ Queiroz FP, Rojo-Ortega JM, Genest J (1980). "Metaischemic (post-Goldblatt) hypertensive vascular disease in rats". Hypertension. 2 (6): 765–70. doi:10.1161/01.hyp.2.6.765. PMID 7461792. Retrieved 2009-06-24.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  85. ^ Weller RO (May 1979). "Vascular pathology in hypertension". Age and Ageing. 8 (2): 99–103. doi:10.1093/ageing/8.2.99. PMID 463685. Retrieved 2009-06-24.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  86. ^ Sinclair RA, Antonovych TT, Mostofi FK (September 1976). "Renal proliferative arteriopathies and associated glomerular changes: a light and electron microscopic study". Human Pathology. 7 (5): 565–88. doi:10.1016/s0046-8177(76)80103-7. PMID 987010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  87. ^ Linz W, Becker RH, Schölkens BA, Wiemer G, Keil M, Langer KH (December 1998). "Nephroprotection by long-term ACE inhibition with ramipril in spontaneously hypertensive stroke prone rats". Kidney International. 54 (6): 2037–44. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.1998.00208.x. PMID 9853269. Retrieved 2009-06-24.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Madhero88/Complications_of_hypertension&oldid=1168388948"