A map detailing the locations of various archaeological sites, ancient hamlets, villages, towns, and/or city-states occupied by the archaeological culture of EDIIIa
The Early Dynastic IIIa period (abbreviated EDIIIa period or EDIIIa; also, may sometimes be called the, "Fara period") is the third out of four sub-periods to an archaeological culture of Mesopotamia collectively referred to as the Early Dynastic (ED). Depending on which chronological timeline for the Ancient Near East (ANE) is preferred among the present-day general consensus of mainstream historians, the Early Dynastic IIIa is usually said to have begun after the preceding Early Dynastic II c. 2600 BCE by the Middle Chronology (MC), or c. 2500 BCE by the Short Chronology (SC); then, gradually transitioning into the Early Dynastic IIIb period c. 2450 BCE (MC), or even up to c. 2375 BCE (SC). The Early Dynastic IIIa period saw an expansion in the use of writing and increasing social inequality. Larger political entities developed in upper Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran. The Royal Cemetery at Ur along with the archives of Tell Fara and Tell Abu Salabikh date back to ED IIIa period.
The EDIIIa is when syllabic writing began. Accounting records and an undeciphered logographic script existed before the Fara period, but the full flow of human speech was first recorded around 2600 BCE at the beginning of this period.
An electrotype copy of a golden helmet that belonged to the possible founder of the first dynasty of Ur: Meskalamdug. The original is in the Iraq Museum.
The first dynasty of Ur is dated to c. 2600 – c. 2350 BCE.[1][2][3][4][5] It was preceded by the first dynasty of Uruk on the SKL.[6] Only four of the final kings of the first dynasty of Ur are mentioned on the SKL.[7] The first dynasty may have been preceded by one other dynasty of Ur unnamed on the SKL which had extensive influence over the area of Sumer, and apparently led a union of south Mesopotamian polities. Ur may have had <6,000 citizens c. 2800 BCE.[8]
A replica of a gold dagger discovered in the tomb of the son of king Mesannepada (king A'annepada).
Ur-Pabilsag is the first archaeologically recorded ruler of Ur said to have held the Sumerian title for king.[9] He was preceded by his father A-Imdugud (who ruled over Ur with the Sumerian title for governor) and succeeded by his son Meskalamdug (who r. c. 2600 – c. 2550 BCE as a king).[2][10][4][3][9]Mesannepada (r. c. 2500 BCE) is the first king of Ur listed on the SKL.[11][12][3][4] Two other rulers earlier than Mesannepada are known from other sources, namely Puabi (probably r. c. 2550 BCE with the Sumerian title for queen) and Akalamdug (r. c. 2600 – c. 2550, c. 2550 – c. 2500 BCE as king).[3][4] It would seem that both Akalamdug and Mesannepada may have been sons of Meskalamdug, according to an inscription found on a bead in Mari, and Meskalamdug may have been the true founder of the first dynasty.[13][14][2]
Funeral procession at the Royal Cemetery of Ur. The items and positions are based off of the tomb for king Meskalamdug. Illustration from Hutchinson's Story of the Nations.
Mesilim (r. c. 2550 – c. 2500 BCE) may have enjoyed suzerainty over Ur and Adab.[4][15][16][17][18] He is also mentioned in some of the earliest monuments as arbitrating a border dispute between Lagash and Umma.[17][18] Mesilim's placement before, during, or after the reign of Mesannepada in Ur is uncertain, owing to the lack of other synchronous names in the inscriptions, and his absence from the SKL. Some have suggested that Mesilim and Mesannepada were in fact one and the same; however, others have disputed this theory.[19][17][20] Both Mesilim and Mesannepada also seem to have subjected Kish, thereafter assuming the title king of Kish for themselves.[21][22] The title king of Kish would be used by many kings of the preeminent dynasties for some time afterward.
Relief of early wagons on the Standard of Ur (dated to c. 2600 BCE).
The Royal Cemetery at Ur held the tombs of several rulers of the first dynasty of Ur. The tombs are particularly lavish, and testify to the wealth of the first dynasty. One of the most famous tombs is that of Puabi. The artifacts found in the royal tombs of the dynasty show that foreign trade was particularly active during this period, with many materials coming from foreign lands, such as carnelian likely coming from the Indus or Iran, lapis Lazuli from the Badakhshan area of Afghanistan, silver from Turkey, copper from Oman, and gold from several locations such as Egypt, Nubia, Turkey or Iran. Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Ur tombs dating to 2600-2450, in an example of Indus-Mesopotamia relations. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique developed by the Harappans. These materials were used into the manufacture of beautiful objects in the workshops of Ur.
The Ur I dynasty had enormous wealth as shown by the lavishness of its tombs. This was probably due to the fact that Ur acted as the main harbour for trade with India, which put her in a strategic position to import and trade vast quantities of gold, carnelian or lapis lazuli. In comparison, the burials of the kings of Kish were much less lavish. High-prowed Summerian ships may have traveled as far as Meluhha, thought to be the Indus region, for trade.
A map of the Near East detailing the approximated locations of various ancient regions, kingdoms, and/or cities (some of which remain lost) that were described on the epic poetry of Enmerkar.
Hamazi first came to the attention of archaeologists with the discovery of a vase with an inscription in very archaic cuneiform commemorating the victory of Uhub (r. c. 2570 – c. 2550 BCE as an early ruler of Kish) over Hamazi, resulting in speculation that Hamazi was to be identified with Carchemish (in Syria).[23][24][4] Its exact location is unknown; but, it's now generally considered to have been located somewhere along the vicinity of the Diyala river and/or the western region of the Zagros mountains—possibly near Nuzi (in Iraq) or Hamadan (in Iran). The earliest mention of Hamazi is on the Bowl of Utu (dated to c. 3245, 2750, or 2600 BCE).[25][26][27] It was also mentioned in two legends: Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta and Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana.[28][29]
"Hamazi" in the inscription of Uhub.
A copy of a diplomatic message sent from Irkab-Damu (r. c. 2340 BCE as the malikum of Ebla) to Zizi (r. c. 2450 BCE as a ruler of Hamazi) was found among the Ebla tablets.[30][31] According to the SKL, king Hadanish of Hamazi (r. c. 2450 – c. 2430 BCE) held the hegemony over Sumer after defeating Kish; however, he was in turn defeated by Enshakushanna of Uruk.[24][32]
Hamazi was one of the provinces under the reign of Amar-Suen (r. c. 2047 – c. 2038, c. 2046 – c. 2038 BCE) of the third dynasty of Ur.[31][4][3] Ur-Adad, Lu-nanna (son of Nam-mahani), Ur-Ishkur, and Warad-Nannar may have ruled as governors of Hamazi up until the province was plundered c. 2010 BCE by Ishbi-Erra (r. c. 2018 – c. 1985, c. 2017 – c. 1985 BC) of Isin.[31][33][4][34] The rulers of Hamazi are believed to have r. c. 3245 – c. 2010 BCE.[31][35][36][37][38][39]
The Susanian dynastic list of the twelve Elamite rulers from Awan and the twelve from Shimashki (dated to c. 1800 – c. 1600 BCE.[40] It is currently located in the Louvre Museum.
According to the SKL: a dynasty from Awan exerted hegemony in Sumer after defeating the first dynasty of Ur.[41] It mentions three Awanite kings, who supposedly reigned for a total of 356 years.[42] Their names have not survived on the extant copies, apart from the partial name of the third king, "Ku-ul...", who it says ruled for 36 years.[43] A separate regnal list discovered in Susa names an additional twelve Elamite rulers beside the three on the SKL: Peli, Tata, Ukku-Tanhish, Hishutash, Shushun-Tarana, Napi-Ilhush, Kikkutanteimti, Luh-ishan, Hishep-Ratep, Helu, Khita, and Puzur-Inshushinak.[36][44][39] Some have suggested that the first three on the Susanian dynastic list may have been the same three on the SKL said to have ruled over both Elam and Sumer.[45]
A map of the Near East detailing various ancient regions that may have been occupied by the Elamite civilization (c. 2700 – c. 1600 BCE). Included are the regions of Bashime, Marhasi, Shimashki, Lullubum, Simurrum, Anshan, Awan, and Susiana.
The dynasty of Awan was the first from Elam of which anything is known today. The dynasty corresponds to the Old Elamite period (c. 2700 – c. 1600 BCE). Awan was a city-state or possibly a region of Elam with an uncertain location, but it has been variously conjectured to have been in the: Khuzestan, Kermanshah, Lorestan, Ilam, and/or Fars provinces of Iran.[1][46][47] This dynasty may have exerted hegemony in Sumer after defeating Ur at some point c. 2600 – c. 2400 BCE, and may have continued ruling independently over Elam from Awan up until c. 2220 – c. 2100 BCE after losing the hegemony.[1][45][48][43] This information is not considered reliable, but it does suggest that Awan had political importance in the 3rd millennium BCE.
A map of the Near East detailing major archaeological sites, along with the locations of various ancient settlements occupied by the Elamite civilization (c. 2700 – c. 1600 BCE). The approximated extent of the Persian gulf during the Bronze Age is shown.
As there are very few other sources for this period, most of these names are not certain. Little more of these rulers' reigns is known, but the Elamites were likely major rivals of neighboring Sumer from remotest antiquity; they were said to have been defeated by Enmebaragesi, who is the earliest archaeologically attested Sumerian king, as well as by a later monarch, Enannatum I.[49] It is also known that the Elamites carried out incursions into Mesopotamia, where they ran up against the most powerful city-states of this period, Kish and Lagash. One such incident is recorded in a tablet addressed to Enetarzi, a minor ruler or governor of Lagash, testifying that a party of 600 Elamites had been intercepted and defeated while attempting to abscond from the port with plunder.[50]
Luh-ishan (r. c. 2350 – c. 2331, c. 2350 – c. 2320 BCE) is the eighth ruler on the Susanian dynastic list, while his father's name "Hishiprashini" is a variant of that of the ninth listed ruler, Hishepratep—indicating either a different individual or (if the same)—that the order of rulers on the Susanian dynastic list has been jumbled.[40][48][43][45][51][52] Events become a little clearer at the time of the Akkadian empire, when historical texts tell of campaigns carried out by the kings of Akkad on the Iranian plateau. Luh-ishan was a vassal of Sargon of Akkad around the time that Sargon boasted of defeating Luh-ishan.[51][53] Sargon's son and successor (Rimush) is said to have conquered Elam, defeating its king named Emahsini.[54] Khita may have signed a peace treaty with Naram-Suen of Akkad c. 2280 BCE.[55]
After the death of Emahsini, Elam became a vassal state ruled by several Akkadian governors. Among these governors were: Eshpum, Epirmupi, and Ili-ishmani.[56] The last two ruled with both the Sumerian title for governor and the Akkadian title for military governor. They r. c. 2300 – c. 2153, c. 2270 – c. 2154 BCE.
Two rulers (neither appear on the SKL) are known to have ruled from Kish in between the first and second dynasties: Uhub (r. c. 2570 – c. 2550 BCE) and Mesilim (r. c. 2550 – c. 2500 BCE).[4][15] The SKL names another eight kings for this dynasty: Susuda, Dadasig, Mamagal, Kalbum, Tuge, Mennuna, Enbi-Ishtar, and Lugalngu. Next to nothing is known about the aforementioned eight.
The rulers from the second dynasty of Ur may have r. c. 2455 – c. 2335, c. 2400 – c. 2280 BCE.[3][4] It was preceded by the second dynasty of Uruk on the SKL.[32] Only two, three, or four rulers are mentioned: Nanni, Meskiagnun (son of Nanni), and two unnamed rulers with unknown fathers.[32] Likewise on the SKL: the second dynasty of Ur was succeeded by a dynasty from Adab.[32] Little more is otherwise known about this dynasty; in fact, the once supposed second dynasty of Ur may have never existed.[57]
Nin-kisalsi (r. c. 2550 BCE) was a governor of Adab and probably the suzerain of Mesilim.[58] Nin-kisalsi may have been succeeded by Lugaldalu. Following this period, the region of Mesopotamia seems to have come under the sway of Lugalannemundu (r. c. 2350 BCE).[58] According to inscriptions, king Lugalannemundu of Adab is said to have subjugated the Four Quarters of the World.[59][note 1] However, his empire fell apart with his death; the SKL indicates that Mari in upper Mesopotamia was the next city to hold the hegemony.
A map of the Near East detailing the approximated locations of the Four Quarters of the World.
Mari did not start off as a small settlement that later grew; but, more of a planned city that was founded c. 2900 BCE (by Sumerians or possibly even by East Semites) to control the waterways of the trade routes along the Tigris–Euphrates river system. The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers away from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods, and was connected to the river by an artificial canal that was between 7 and 10 kilometers long, depending on which meander it used for transport, which is hard to identify today. The city is difficult to excavate as it is buried deep under later layers of habitation. A defensive system against floods composed of a circular embankment was unearthed, in addition to a circular 6.7 m thick internal rampart to protect the city from enemies. An area 300 meters in length filled with gardens and craftsmen quarters separated the outer embankment from the inner rampart, which had a height of 8 to 10 meters and was strengthened by defensive towers. Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, and residential houses. Mari had a central mound, but no temple or palace has been unearthed there. A large building was however excavated (with dimensions of 32 meters X 25 meters) and seems to have had an administrative function. It had stone foundations and rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide. The SKL records a dynasty of six kings from Mari enjoying hegemony between the first of Adab and the third of Kish: Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi, Limer, and Sharrumiter.[60] It has been suggested that only Sharrumiter held the hegemony after Lugalannemundu.[61] The city was abandoned c. 2550 BCE for reasons unknown.[62]
The names of the kings from the first Mariote kingdom were damaged on earlier copies of the SKL, and those kings were correlated with historical kings that belonged to the second kingdom.[63][64] However, an undamaged copy of the SKL that dates to the old Babylonian period was discovered in Shubat-Enlil, and the names bear no resemblance to any of the historically-attested rulers of the second Mariote kingdom, indicating that the compilers of the SKL had an older (and probably legendary) dynasty in mind that predates the second kingdom.[63]
A map of the Near East detailing the extent of the second Mariote kingdom during the reign of Iblul-Il (r. c. 2425 – c. 2380 BCE).[61][65]
The rulers of the second Mariote kingdom held the Sumerian title for king, and many are attested in the city, the most important source being a letter written by king Enna-Dagan c. 2350 BCE to Irkab-Damu of Ebla.[66] The chronological order of the kings from the second kingdom era is highly uncertain; nevertheless, it is assumed that the letter of Enna-Dagan lists them in a chronological order.[67] Many of the kings were attested through their own votive objects discovered in the city, and the dates are highly speculative.[67][65] The kings of the second Mariote kingdom may have r. c. 2550 – c. 2290, c. 2450 – c. 2260 BCE.[61][65]
A map of the Near East detailing the approximated territorial extent of the first Eblaite kingdom at its height during the reign of Irkab-Damu (r. c. 2340 – c. 2320 BCE).[30]
The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan is Ansud, who is mentioned as attacking Ebla, the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a century-long war, and conquering many of Ebla's cities, including the land of Belan.[30][68] The next king mentioned in the letter is Saʿumu (r. c. 2416 – c. 2400 BCE), who conquered the lands of Ra'ak and Nirum.[68] King Kun-Damu (r. c. 2400 – c. 2380 BCE) of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BCE.[30] The war continued with Ishtup-Ishar (r. c. 2400 – c. 2380 BCE) of Mari's conquest of Emar at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BCE.[68] King Igrish-Halam (r. c. 2360 – c. 2340 BCE) of Ebla had to pay tribute to Iblul-Il (r. c. 2425 – c. 2400, c. 2400 – c. 2380 BCE) of Mari, who is mentioned in the letter, conquering many of Ebla's cities and campaigning in the Burman region.[68][61][65][30]
Enna-Dagan also received tribute; his reign fell entirely within the reign of Irkab-Damu of Ebla, who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute.[66] Mari defeated Ebla's ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium's term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia. The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa.[69] Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa c. 2300 BCE, during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar. According to Alfonso Archi, Hidar was succeeded by Ishqi-Mari whose royal seal was discovered. It depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general.
The third dynasty of Kish is unique in that it is represented by a woman named Kubaba (r. c. 2450 – c. 2365, c. 2430 – c. 2350 BCE).[15][4] The SKL adds that she had been a tavern-keeper before overthrowing the hegemony of Mari and becoming monarch. According to the Weidner Chronicle: the god Marduk handed over the kingship to Kubaba of Kish during the reign of Puzur-Nirah of Akshak; although, according to the SKL: the Akshak dynasty succeeded the third of Kish.[70] Although its military and economic power was diminished, Kish retained a strong political and symbolic significance. Just as with Nippur to the south, control of Kish was a prime element in legitimizing dominance over the north of Mesopotamia (Assyria and/or Subartu).
Kubaba's dynasty is sometimes said to include her son Puzur-Suen (r. c. 2365 – c. 2340 BC) and grandson Ur-Zababa (r. c. 2340 – c. 2334 BC).[15][4] The SKL ascribes a 100-year-long reign for the matriarch, 25 for her son, and (varyingly) 4, 6, or even up to 400 years to her grandson. Altogether they ruled for 131 years.
Sargon of Akkad came from an area near Kish called Azupiranu. He would later declare himself the king of Kish, as an attempt to signify his connection to the religiously important area. Because of the city's symbolic value, strong rulers later claimed the traditional title "king of Kish", even if they were from Akkad, Ur, Assyria, Isin, Larsa, or Babylon. Kubaba was later deified as the goddess Kheba.
A map of Sumer detailing the approximated location of Akshak.
Akshak achieved independence with a line of five or six kings extending from Unzi, Undalulu, Urur to Puzur-Nirah, Ishu-Il, and Shu-Suen (son of Ishu-Il). These kings of Akshak r. c. 2459 – c. 2360 BCE before being defeated by the kings in the fourth dynasty of Kish.[71] One ruler preceding Unzi by the name of Zuzu (r. c. 2470 BCE) may have been smited by Eannatum of Lagash.[72][71]
Ur-Nanshe: top, creating the foundation for a shrine; bottom, presiding over its dedication.
The rulers of this dynasty are believed to have r. c. 2570 – c. 2350, c. 2494 – c. 2342 BCE.[4][73] Although the first dynasty of Lagash has become well-attested through several important monuments, many archaeological finds, and well-known based off of mentions on inscriptions contemporaneous with other dynasties from the EDIII period; it was not inscribed onto the SKL. One fragmentary supplement names the rulers of Lagash.[74][75] The first dynasty of Lagash preceded the dynasty of Akkad in a time in which Lagash exercised considerable influence in the region.
Votive relief of Ur-Nanshe, king of Lagash, representing the bird-god Anzu (or Im-dugud) as a lion-headed eagle. Alabaster, Early Dynastic III (c. 2550 – c. 2500 BCE); found in Telloh, ancient city of Girsu.
Enhengal (r. c. 2570 – c. 2510, c. 2530 – c. 2510 BCE) is recorded as the first known ruler of Lagash, being tributary to Uruk.[4][73] His successor Lugalshaengur (r. c. 2510 – c. 2494 BCE) was similarly tributary to Mesilim.[4][73] Following the hegemony of Mesannepada, Ur-Nanshe (r. c. 2494 – c. 2465 BC) succeeded Lugalshaengur as the new high priest of Lagash and achieved independence, making himself king.[4][73] He defeated Ur and captured the king of Umma, Pabilgaltuk. In the ruins of a building attached by him to the temple of Ningirsu, terracottabas reliefs of the king and his sons have been found, as well as onyx plates and lions' heads in onyx reminiscent of Egyptian work. One inscription states that ships of Dilmun (Bahrain) brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands. He was succeeded by his son Akurgal (r. c. 2466 – c. 2457, c. 2464 – c. 2455 BCE).[4][73]
A Sumerian relief of Ur-Nanshe, king of Lagash c. 2500 BCE.
Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum (r. c. 2457 – c. 2425, c. 2455 – c. 2425 BCE), grandson of Ur-Nanshe, who made himself master of the whole of the country of Sumer by annexing the cities of Uruk, Ur, Nippur, Akshak, and Larsa.[76][4][73]Umma was made tributary (after he vanquished Ush)—a certain amount of grain being levied upon each person in it, that had to be paid into the treasury of the goddess Nina and the god Ningirsu; in addition, Eannatum's campaigns extended beyond the confines of Sumer as he overran a part of Elam, took the city of Az on the Persian gulf, and exacted tribute as far as Mari. Many of the realms he conquered were often in revolt; furthermore, he seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. His Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. During his reign, temples and palaces were repaired or erected at Lagash and elsewhere; the town of Nina—that probably gave its name to the later Niniveh—was rebuilt, and canals and reservoirs were excavated. He also annexed the kingdom of Kish; however, it recovered its independence after his death. His empire collapsed shortly after his death.
Fragment of Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures.
Eannatum was succeeded by his brother, Enannatum I (r. c. 2424 – c. 2421, c. 2425 – c. 2405 BCE).[4][73] During his rule, Umma once more asserted independence under Ur-Lumma, who attacked Lagash unsuccessfully. Ur-Lumma was replaced by a priest-king, Illi, who also attacked Lagash.
Fragment of Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures.
His son and successor Entemena (r. c. 2420 – c. 2393, c. 2405 – c. 2375 BCE) restored the prestige of Lagash.[4][73] Illi of Umma was subdued, with the help of his ally Lugal-kinishe-dudu of Uruk, successor to Enshakushana and also on the king-list. Lugal-kinishe-dudu seems to have been the prominent figure at the time, since he also claimed to rule Kish and Ur. A silver vase dedicated by Entemena to his god is now in the Louvre. A frieze of lions devouring ibexes and deer, incised with great artistic skill, runs round the neck, while the eagle crest of Lagash adorns the globular part. The vase is a proof of the high degree of excellence to which the goldsmith's art had already attained. A vase of calcite, also dedicated by Entemena, has been found at Nippur. After Entemena, a series of weak, corrupt rulers is attested for Lagash: Enannatum II, Enentarzi, Enlitarzi, and Lugalanda who altogether r. c. 2392 – c. 2361, c. 2375 – c. 2352 BCE.[77][78][78][4][73] The last of these, Urukagina (r. c. 2361 – c. 2350, c. 2352 – c. 2342 BCE), was known for his judicial, social, and economic reforms (as part of the Code of Urukagina), and his may well be the first legal code known to have existed.[4][73]
32–38
𒂍𒀭𒈾𒁺 𒉺𒋼𒋛 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠 𒉺𒄑𒉋𒂵 𒂗𒋼𒈨𒈾 𒉺𒋼𒋛 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠𒅗𒆤
e2-an-na-tum2 ensi2 lagaški pa-bil3-ga en-mete-na ensi2 lagaški-ka-ke4
"Eannatum, ruler of Lagash, uncle of Entemena, ruler of Lagash" 39–42 𒂗𒀉𒆗𒇷 𒉺𒋼𒋛 𒄑𒆵𒆠𒁕 𒆠 𒂊𒁕𒋩
en-a2-kal-le ensi2 ummaki-da ki e-da-sur
"fixed the border with Enakalle, ruler of Umma"
Extract from the Cone of Enmetena, Room 236 Reference AO 3004, Louvre Museum.
Later, Lugal-Zage-Si, the priest-king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty in the area, then conquered Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He was the last ethnically Sumerian king before Sargon of Akkad.
A map of the Near East detailing the location of Gu-Edin (between Umma and Lagash) in Sumer.
Umma was an ancient city in Sumer best known for its century-long border war against Lagash over the Gu-Edin plain between Umma's earliest known ruler Pabilgagaltuku (r. c. 2600 – c. 2520, c. 2535 – c. 2455 BCE) and Lagash's Ur-Nanshe. Pabilgagaltuku was subsequently defeated, seized, vanquished by Ur-Nanshe and succeeded by a governorUsh (r. c. 2520 – c. 2441, c. 2455 – c. 2445 BC).[79] Ush is mentioned on the Cone of Entemana as having violated the frontier with Lagash—a frontier which had been solemly established by king Mesilim of Kish. It is thought that Ush was severely defeated by Eannatum. The Stele of the Vultures suggests that Ush was killed in a rebellion in his capital city of Umma after the loss of 3,600 soldiers on the field.
Academia.edu (2021c). "Kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Uruk". The History Files. JSTOR: Kessler Associates (published 1999–2021). Retrieved 2021-05-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Academia.edu (2021f). "Kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Hamazi". The History Files. JSTOR: Kessler Associates (published 1999–2021). Retrieved 2021-05-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Academia.edu (2021g). "Kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Adab". The History Files. JSTOR: Kessler Associates (published 1999–2021). Retrieved 2021-05-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Academia.edu (2021h). "Kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Mari". The History Files. JSTOR: Kessler Associates (published 1999–2021). Retrieved 2021-05-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Academia.edu (2021l). "Kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Isin". The History Files. JSTOR: Kessler Associates (published 1999–2021). Retrieved 2021-06-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Academia.edu (2021m). "Kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Lagash". The History Files. JSTOR: Kessler Associates (published 1999–2021). Retrieved 2021-06-16.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Academia.edu (2021n). "Kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Umma". The History Files. JSTOR: Kessler Associates (published 1999–2021). Retrieved 2021-06-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Academia.edu (2021o). "Kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Larsa". The History Files. JSTOR: Kessler Associates (published 1999–2021). Retrieved 2021-07-02.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Alster, B. (1972–2005). Zólyomi, G.; Robson, E.; Cunningham, G.; Ebeling, J. (eds.). "Dream of Dumuzid". ETCSL. Translated by Krecher, J.; Black, J. (revised ed.). United Kingdom: Oxford (published 1972–1997). Retrieved 2021-05-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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The Ram in a Thicket from the Royal Cemetery at Ur. Currently located in the British Museum.
The Standard of Ur from the Royal Cemetery at Ur. Currently located in the British Museum.
Reconstructed Sumerian headgear necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi from the Royal Cemetery at Ur. Currently located in the British Museum.
Scepter from tomb PG 1236.
Weapons from tomb PG 789.
Copper alloy axe.
Silver model of a boat from tomb PG 789.
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