A voiceless postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The International Phonetic Association uses the term voiceless postalveolar fricative only for the sound [ ʃ ],[1] but it also describes the voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative [ɹ̠̊˔], for which there are significant perceptual differences.
Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative
edit| Voiceless postalveolar fricative | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ʃ | |||
| IPA number | 134 | ||
| Audio sample | |||
| Encoding | |||
| Entity (decimal) | ʃ | ||
| Unicode (hex) | U+0283 | ||
| X-SAMPA | S | ||
| Braille |  | ||
| |||
A voiceless palato-alveolar fricative or voiceless domed postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in many languages, including English. In English, it is usually spelled ⟨sh⟩, as in ship.
The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ ʃ ⟩, the letter esh introduced by Isaac Pitman (not to be confused with the integral symbol ⟨∫⟩). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is S.
An alternative symbol is ⟨š⟩, an s with a caron or háček, which is used in the Americanist phonetic notation and the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet, as well as in the scientific and ISO 9 transliterations of Cyrillic. It originated with the Czech orthography of Jan Hus and was adopted in Gaj's Latin alphabet and other Latin alphabets of Slavic languages. It also features in the orthographies of many Baltic, Finno-Samic, North American and African languages.
Features
editFeatures of the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative:
- Its manner of articulation is sibilant fricative, which means it is generally produced by channeling air flow along a groove in the back of the tongue up to the place of articulation, at which point it is focused against the sharp edge of the nearly clenched teeth, causing high-frequency turbulence.
- Its place of articulation is palato-alveolar, that is, domed (partially palatalized) postalveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, and the front of the tongue bunched up ("domed") at the palate.
- Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
edit| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | шыд | [ʃəd] | 'donkey' | ||
| Albanian | shtëpi | [ʃtəˈpi] | 'house' | ||
| Arabic | Modern Standard[2] | شَمْس | 'sun' | See Arabic phonology | |
| Armenian | Eastern[3] | շուն | 'dog' | ||
| Aromanian | shi | [ʃi] | 'and' | ||
| Asturian | xera | [ˈʃeɾa] | 'work' | ||
| Azerbaijani | şeir | [ʃeiɾ] | 'poem' | ||
| Assyrian | ܫܒܬܐ šebta | [ʃεbta] | 'saturday' | ||
| Bashkir | биш / biš | 'five' | |||
| Basque | kaixo | [kajʃ̺o] | 'hello' | ||
| Breton | chadenn | [ˈʃadɛ̃n] | 'chain' | ||
| Bulgarian | юнашки | [juˈnaʃki] | 'heroically' | See Bulgarian phonology | |
| Chechen | шура / şura | ['ʃurə] | 'milk' | ||
| Chuvash | шурă | ['ʃurə] | 'white' | ||
| Czech | kaše | [ˈkaʃɛ] | 'mash' | See Czech phonology | |
| Dutch[4] | sjabloon | 'template' | May be [sʲ] or [ɕ] instead. See Dutch phonology | ||
| English | sheep | 'sheep' | See English phonology | ||
| Esperanto | ŝelko | [ˈʃelko] | 'suspenders' | See Esperanto phonology | |
| Faroese | sjúkrahús | [ʃʉukrahʉus] | 'hospital' | See Faroese phonology | |
| French[5] | cher | 'expensive' | See French phonology | ||
| Finnish | šekki | [ʃekːi] | 'check' | See Finnish phonology | |
| Galician | viaxe | [ˈbjaʃe] | 'trip' | See Galician phonology | |
| Georgian[6] | შარი | [ˈʃɑɾi] | 'quibbling' | ||
| German | Standard[7] | schön | [ʃøːn] | 'beautiful' | Laminal or apico-laminal and strongly labialized.[7] See Standard German phonology |
| Greek | Cypriot | ασσιήμια | [ɐˈʃːimɲɐ] | 'ugliness' | Contrasts with /ʃ/ and /ʒː/ |
| Pontic | ςςον | [ʃo̞n] | 'snow' | ||
| Hebrew | שָׁלוֹם | 'peace' | See Modern Hebrew phonology | ||
| Hindi | शक | [ʃək] | 'doubt' | See Hindustani phonology | |
| Hungarian | só | [ʃoː] | 'salt' | See Hungarian phonology | |
| Ilocano | siák | [ʃak] | 'I' | ||
| Irish | sí | [ʃiː] | 'she' | See Irish phonology | |
| Italian | Marked accents of Emilia-Romagna[8] | sali | [ˈʃäːli] | 'you go up' | Apical non-labialized; may be [s̺ʲ] or [ʂ] instead.[8] It corresponds to [s] in standard Italian. See Italian phonology |
| Standard[9] | fasce | [ˈfäʃːe] | 'bands' | See Italian phonology | |
| Kabardian | шыд | [ʃɛd] | 'donkey' | Contrasts with a labialized form | |
| Kabyle | ciwer | [ʃiwər] | 'to consult' | ||
| Kashubian[10] | nasz | [naʃ] | 'our' | See Kashubian language | |
| Kazakh | шаш / şaş | [ʃаʃ] | 'hair' | ||
| Kurdish | şev | [ʃɛv] | 'night' | See Kurdish phonology | |
| Latvian | šalle | [ˈʃalːe] | 'scarf' | See Latvian phonology | |
| Lillooet | stswúw̓ecw | [ˈʃtʃwuˀwəxʷ] | 'creek' | ||
| Limburgish | Maastrichtian[11] | sjat | [ʃɑ̽t] | 'darling' | Laminal post-alveolar with an unclear amount of palatalization.[12] |
| Lingala | shakú | [ʃakú] | 'grey parrot' | ||
| Lithuanian | šarvas | [ˈʃɐrˑvɐs] | 'armor' | See Lithuanian phonology | |
| Macedonian | што | [ʃtɔ] | 'what' | See Macedonian phonology | |
| Malay | syarikat | [ʃarikat] | 'company' | ||
| Maltese | x′jismek? | [ˈʃjɪsmɛk] | 'what is your name?' | ||
| Marathi | शब्द | [ˈʃəbd̪ə] | 'word' | See Marathi phonology | |
| Mayan | Yucatec | ko'ox | [koʔoʃ] | 'let's go' | |
| Mopan | kax | [kɑːʃ] | 'chicken' | ||
| Mpade | sha | [ʃa] | 'cow' | ||
| Mutsun | raṭmašte | [ɾɑʈmɑʃtɛ] | 'having acne' | ||
| Neapolitan | scugnizzo | [ʃkuˈɲːitt͡sə] | 'urchin' | ||
| Occitan | Auvergnat | maissant | [meˈʃɔ̃] | 'bad' | See Occitan phonology |
| Gascon | maishant | [maˈʃan] | |||
| Limousin | son | [ʃũ] | 'his' | ||
| Persian | شاه | [ʃɒːh] | 'king' | See Persian phonology | |
| Polish | Gmina Istebna | siano | [ˈʃän̪ɔ] | 'hay' | /ʂ/ and /ɕ/ merge into [ʃ] in these dialects. In standard Polish, /ʃ/ is commonly used to transcribe what actually is a laminal voiceless retroflex sibilant |
| Lubawa dialect[13] | |||||
| Malbork dialect[13] | |||||
| Ostróda dialect[13] | |||||
| Warmia dialect[13] | |||||
| Portuguese[14][15] | xamã | [ʃɐˈmɐ̃] | 'shaman' | Also described as alveolo-palatal [ɕ].[16][17][18] See Portuguese phonology | |
| Punjabi | ਸ਼ੇਰ | [ʃeːɾ] | 'lion' | ||
| Romani | deš | [deʃ] | 'ten' | ||
| Romanian | șefi | [ʃefʲ] | 'bosses' | See Romanian phonology | |
| Sahaptin | šíš | [ʃiʃ] | 'mush' | ||
| Scottish Gaelic | seinn | [ʃeiɲ] | 'sing' | See Scottish Gaelic phonology | |
| Serbo-Croatian | škola | [ʃkôːla] | 'school' | See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |
| Silesian | Gmina Istebna[19] | [example needed] | These dialects merge /ʂ/ and /ɕ/ into [ʃ] | ||
| Jablunkov[19] | [example needed] | ||||
| Slovak | škola | [ʃkɔla] | 'school' | See Slovak phonology | |
| Slovene | šola | [ˈʃóːlà] | 'school' | See Slovene phonology | |
| Somali | shan | [ʃan] | 'five' | See Somali phonology | |
| Spanish | New Mexican | echador | 'boastful' | Corresponds to [t͡ʃ] in other dialects. See Spanish phonology | |
| Northern Mexico[20] | |||||
| Cuban | |||||
| Panamanian | chocolate | [ʃo̞ko̞ˈläte̞] | 'chocolate' | ||
| Southern Andalusia | |||||
| Chilean | |||||
| Rioplatense | ayer | [äˈʃe̞ɾ] | 'yesterday' | May be voiced [ʒ] instead. See Spanish phonology and yeísmo | |
| Sranantongo | syène | [ˈʃɛne] | 'blunder, disappointment' | ||
| Swahili | shule | [ʃule] | 'school' | ||
| Swedish | Västerbotten dialect[21] | sjwår | [ˈʃwoːr] | 'difficult' | |
| Tagalog | siya | [ʃa] | 'he/she' | See Tagalog phonology | |
| Toda[22] | [pɔʃ] | 'language' | Contrasts /θ s̪ s̠ ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ/.[23] | ||
| Tunica | šíhkali | [ˈʃihkali] | 'stone' | ||
| Turkish | güneş | [ɟyˈne̞ʃ] | 'sun' | See Turkish phonology | |
| Ukrainian[24] | шахи | ['ʃɑxɪ] | 'chess' | See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Urdu | شکریہ | [ʃʊkˈriːaː] | 'thank you' | See Hindustani phonology | |
| Uyghur | شەھەر | [ʃæhær] | 'city' | ||
| Uzbek | bosh | [bɒʃ] | 'head' | ||
| Walloon | texhou | [tɛʃu] | 'knit fabric' | ||
| Welsh | Standard | siarad | [ˈʃɑːrad] | 'speak' | See Welsh phonology |
| Southern dialects | mis | [miːʃ] | 'month' | ||
| West Frisian | sjippe | [ˈʃɪpə] | 'soap' | See West Frisian phonology | |
| Western Lombard | Canzés | fescia | [feʃa] | 'nuisance' | |
| Yiddish | וויסנשאַפֿטלעכע | [vɪsn̩ʃaftləχə] | 'scientific' | See Yiddish phonology | |
| Yorùbá | ṣí | [ʃi] | 'open' | ||
| Zapotec | Tilquiapan[25] | xana | [ʃana] | 'how?' | |
In various languages, including English and French, it may have simultaneous labialization, i.e. [ʃʷ], although this is usually not transcribed.
Classical Latin did not have [ʃ], though it does occur in most Romance languages. For example, ⟨ch⟩ in French chanteur "singer" is pronounced /ʃ/. Chanteur is descended from Latin cantare, where ⟨c⟩ was pronounced /k/. The ⟨sc⟩ in Latin scientia "science" was pronounced /sk/, but has shifted to /ʃ/ in Italian scienza.
Similarly, Proto-Germanic had neither [ʃ] nor [ʂ], yet many of its descendants do. In most cases, this [ʃ] or [ʂ] descends from a Proto-Germanic /sk/. For instance, Proto-Germanic *skipą ("hollow object, water-borne vessel larger than a boat") was pronounced /ˈski.pɑ̃/. The English word "ship" /ʃɪp/ has been pronounced without the /sk/ the longest, the word being descended from Old English "scip" /ʃip/, which already also had the [ʃ], though the Old English spelling etymologically indicated that the old /sk/ had once been present.
This change took longer to catch on in West Germanic languages other than Old English, though it eventually did. The second West Germanic language to undergo this sound shift was Old High German. In fact, it has been argued that Old High German's /sk/ was actually already [s̠k], because a single [s] had already shifted to [s̠]. Furthermore, by Middle High German, that /s̠k/ had shifted to [ʃ]. After High German, the shift most likely then occurred in Low Saxon. After Low Saxon, Middle Dutch began the shift, but it stopped shifting once it reached /sx/, and has kept that pronunciation since. Then, most likely through influence from German and Low Saxon, North Frisian experienced the shift.
Then, Swedish quite swiftly underwent the shift, which resulted in the very uncommon [ɧ] phoneme, which, aside from Swedish, is only used in Colognian, a variety of High German, though not as a replacement for the standard High German /ʃ/ but a coronalized /ç/. However, the exact realization of Swedish /ɧ/ varies considerably among dialects; for instance, in Northern dialects it tends to be realized as [ʂ]. See sj-sound for more details. Finally, the last to undergo the shift was Norwegian, in which the result of the shift was [ʃ].
The sound in Russian denoted by ⟨ш⟩ is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually an apical retroflex fricative.[26]
Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative
edit| Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative | |
|---|---|
| ɹ̠̊˔ | |
| ɹ̝̊˗ | |
| IPA number | 151 414 402B 429 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| X-SAMPA | r\_-_0_r |
| Voiceless postalveolar approximant | |
|---|---|
| ɹ̠̊ |
The voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed ⟨ɹ̠̊˔⟩ (retracted constricted voiceless [ɹ]). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r\_-_0_r.
Some scholars also posit the voiceless postalveolar approximant distinct from the fricative. The approximant may be represented in the IPA as ⟨ɹ̠̊⟩.
Features
edit- Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
- Its place of articulation is postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge.
- Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
edit| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bengali[27] | Some dialects | আবার | [ˈäbäɹ̠̊] | 'again' | Apical; possible allophone of /ɹ/ in the syllable coda.[28] See Bengali phonology |
| English | Received Pronunciation[29] | crew | [kɹ̠̊˔ʊu̯] | 'crew' | Only partially devoiced. It is a realization of /r/ after the word-initial fortis plosives /p, k/, unless they are preceded by /s/ within the same syllable.[30] See English phonology |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ "IPA i-charts (2018)". International Phonetic Association. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
- ^ Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
- ^ Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 18.
- ^ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 46.
- ^ Fougeron & Smith (1993), p. 73.
- ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
- ^ a b Mangold (2005:51)
- ^ a b Canepari (1992), p. 73.
- ^ Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 117.
- ^ Treder, Jerzy. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Rastko. Archived from the original on 2014-11-02.
- ^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), p. 156.
- ^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999:156). The authors state that /ʃ/ is "pre-palatal, articulated with the blade of the tongue against the post-alveolar place of articulation". This makes it unclear whether this sound is palato-alveolar (somewhat palatalized post-alveolar) or alveolo-palatal (strongly palatalized post-alveolar).
- ^ a b c d Dubisz, Karaś & Kolis (1995), p. 62.
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
- ^ Medina (2010).
- ^ Mateus & d'Andrade (2000).
- ^ Silva (2003), p. 32.
- ^ Guimarães (2004).
- ^ a b Dąbrowska (2004:?)
- ^ Cotton & Sharp (2001:15)
- ^ Lindgren, 1919 & p. 245.
- ^ Ladefoged (2005:168)
- ^ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 66.
- ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
- ^ Merrill (2008), p. 108.
- ^ Silke, Hamann (2004). "Retroflex fricatives in Slavic languages" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-14.
- ^ Khan (2010), p. 224.
- ^ Khan (2010), pp. 223–224.
- ^ Roach (2004), pp. 240–241.
- ^ Roach (2004), p. 240.
References
edit- Khan, Sameer ud Dowla (2010), "Bengali (Bangladeshi Standard)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (2): 221–225, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000071
- Canepari, Luciano (1992), Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 88-08-24624-8
- Cotton, Eleanor Greet; Sharp, John (1988), Spanish in the Americas, Georgetown University Press, ISBN 978-0-87840-094-2
- Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223, S2CID 249414876
- Dąbrowska, Anna (2004), Język polski, Wrocław: wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, ISBN 83-7384-063-X
- Dubisz, Stanisław; Karaś, Halina; Kolis, Nijola (1995), Dialekty i gwary polskie (in Polish), Warsaw: Wiedza Powszechna, ISBN 83-2140989-X
- Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
- Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins
- Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L (1993), "French", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (2): 73–76, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, S2CID 249404451
- Guimarães, Daniela (2004), Seqüências de (Sibilante + Africada Alveopalatal) no Português Falado em Belo Horizonte (PDF), Belo Horizonte: Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
- Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (2): 45–47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X, S2CID 243772965
- ———; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2), University of Nijmegen, Centre for Language Studies: 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526, S2CID 145782045
- Ladefoged, Peter (2005), Vowels and Consonants (2nd ed.), Blackwell
- Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7
- Lindgren, J.V. (1919), Burträskmålets grammatik (PDF), p. 245
- Mateus, Maria Helena; d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000), The Phonology of Portuguese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-823581-X
- Medina, Flávio (2010), Análise Acústica de Sequências de Fricativas Seguidas de [i] Produzidas por Japoneses Aprendizes de Português Brasileiro (PDF), Anais do IX Encontro do CELSUL Palhoça, SC, Palhoça: Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina
- Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–14, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
- Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 239–45, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001768
- Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–21, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628
- Shosted, Ryan K; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–64, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
- Silva, Thaïs Cristófaro (2003), Fonética e Fonologia do Português: Roteiro de Estudos e Guia de Exercícios (7th ed.), São Paulo: Contexto, ISBN 85-7244-102-6
- Thelwall, Robin (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–41, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266, S2CID 243640727