Wawaus, also known as James Printer (c. 1640-1709), was an important Nipmuc leader from Hassanamesit (today Grafton, Massachusetts), who experienced and observed the beginning of a wide range of genocide, from physical to biological to cultural, on his person, community, and livelihood.[1][2] He is most commonly known for his work at the first printing press in the American colonies, yet like many Indigenous people during the 17th century in New England, was mistreated, abused, arrested, threatened, falsely imprisoned, and forced into exile on Deer Island in the Boston Harbor by the newly settled foreign imperialists. He helped produce the first Indian Bibles in the Massachusett language (an Algonquin language), which were used by English colonists in the cultural assimilation of Native Americans. He also set the type for books including the famous Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson.[3]
As a young boy, Wawaus's parents sent him and his brother, Job Kattenanit, to attend a grammar school in Roxbury.[4]
Wawaus became fluent in English, Greek, and Latin as a student at Harvard's Indian College.
The Cambridge Press
editBeginning in 1648, when he was a young boy, Wawaus was put to work at the printing press near Harvard College that was owned by Elizabeth Glover and operated by Samuel Green.[5] He is believed to have been the first printer's devil in the American colonies. There, he became known by the English name James Printer. In addition to the Indian Bible, Wawaus assisted Samuel Green in printing many of the Algonquian-language texts that were in circulation throughout the American colonies from 1658 to 1710.[6]
King Philip's War
editPrinter's major contribution to American literature came during King Philip's War while he worked as a scribe for King Philip also known as Metacomet.[7]
During the war, Printer left Cambridge for Hassanamesit.[8] At the outbreak of King Philip's War, Printer was falsely accused of participating in the Lancaster raid, a raid on Lancaster, Massachusetts.[8] He narrowly escaped death after an English mob accused him.[8] Following his escape, the town of Hassanamesit was confronted by Nipmucs from Menimesit. They carried an urgent message, asking the families at Hassanamesit to “go with them quietly” to Menimesit. They warned, if “you go to the English again” they would “force you all to some Island as the Natick Indians are, where you will be in danger and starved with cold and hunger, and most probably in the end be all sent out of the country for slaves.” [9][8] Printer along with the other inhabitants chose to go with Metacomet's men.[8] During his willing captivity, it is believed, Printer along with other Native American Christian captives came to sympathize with Metacomet's men.[8]
Printer is known for two letters he produced during King Philip's War.[10] These letters were written from the Native Americans to the English.[10]
The first of the two notable letters was found tacked to a bridge post outside of the town of Medfield, Massachusetts in 1675.[10] While the note was unsigned, several scholars attribute the note to James Printer.[11] The note states that the English have provoked the Native Americans to war and that the Native Americans have nothing to lose in the fight but their lives while English may lose their property and possessions.[10] This letter is notable due to its shrewdness to recognize that the loss of the colonists' private property would make them vulnerable.[8] In addition the fact that the message was written in English was evidence that it could only have come from a Native American with extensive Christian education [8] which showed the Englishmen's attempts to assimilate Native Americans was not wholly successful.[12] [13]
The second letter is known to have been written by Printer during King Philip's War.[10] This letter concerns the ransom for Mary Rowlandson, Mrs. John Kettell, and other colonists held captive by King Philip's men.[10] This letter was part of the negotiation for the release of Rowlandson and her fellow captives.[10] The letter can be read as an attempt by Printer to mend fences with the English.[10] The letter is an extraordinary example of early Native American writing which shows Printer's writing skills.[7] Ironically he later worked as the typesetter for Mary Rowlandson's narrative of her captivity The Sovereignty and Goodness of God published in 1682.[10]
After the war Printer was granted amnesty.[14]
References
edit- ^ https://www.history.com/news/native-americans-genocide-united-states
- ^ https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx_662805/202203/t20220302_10647120.html
- ^ Senier, Siobhan (2014). Dawnland Voices: An Anthology of Indigenous Writer from New England. University of Nebraska Press. p. 374. ISBN 9780803246867.
- ^ Brooks, Lisa (2018). Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip's War. Oxford University Press. p. 77.
- ^ "Cambridge Press". From English to Algonquin: Early New England Translations. americanantiquarian.org. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ "Wowaus, or James Printer (d. 1717)". From English to Algonquin: Early American Translations. americanantiquarian.org. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
auto1was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c d e f g h Cite error: The named reference
auto3was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ https://search.worldcat.org/title/35395256
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Cite error: The named reference
auto2was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
autowas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Ben-Zvi, Yael (Winter 2012). "Up and Down with Mary Rowlandson: Erdrich's and Alexie's Versions of "Captivity"". Studies in American Indian Literatures. 24 (4).
- ^ Ben-Zvi, Yael (Winter 2012). "Up and Down with Mary Rowlandson: Erdrich's and Alexie's Versions of "Captivity"". Studies in American Indian Literatures. 24 (4): 21. doi:10.5250/studamerindilite.24.4.0021. S2CID 161836157.
- ^ Lepore, Jill (December 1994). "Dead Men Tell No Tales: John Sassamon and the Fatal Consequences of Literacy". American Quarterly. 46 (4): 479–512. doi:10.2307/2713381. JSTOR 2713381.