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Tibetan script

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The Tibetan script is a segmental writing system, or abugida, derived from Brahmic scripts and Gupta script, and used to write certain Tibetic languages, including Tibetan, Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Ladakhi, Jirel and Balti. It was originally developed c. 620 by Tibetan minister Thonmi Sambhota for King Songtsen Gampo.[5][6]

Tibetan
བོད་ཡིག་
The mantra "Om mani padme hum"
Script type
Time period
c. 620–present
DirectionLeft-to-right Edit this on Wikidata
Languages
Related scripts
Parent systems
Child systems
Sister systems
Meitei,[3][4] Sharada, Siddham, Kalinga, Bhaiksuki
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Tibt (330), ​Tibetan
Unicode
Unicode alias
Tibetan
U+0F00–U+0FFF Final Accepted Script Proposal of the First Usable Edition (3.0)
 This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.
This article contains Tibetan script. Without proper rendering support, you may see very small fonts, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Tibetan characters.

The Tibetan script has also been used for some non-Tibetic languages in close cultural contact with Tibet, such as Thakali,[7] Nepali[8] and Old Turkic. The printed form is called uchen script while the hand-written cursive form used in everyday writing is called umê script. This writing system is used across the Himalayas and Tibet.

The script is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet.[9] The Tibetan script is of Brahmic origin from the Gupta script and is ancestral to scripts such as Lepcha,[10] Marchen and the multilingual ʼPhags-pa script,[10] and is also closely related to Meitei.[3]

History

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According to Tibetan historiography, the Tibetan script was developed during the reign of King Songtsen Gampo by his minister Thonmi Sambhota, who was sent to India with 16 other students to study Buddhism along with Sanskrit and written languages. They developed the Tibetan script from the Gupta script[11] while at the Pabonka Hermitage.

This occurred c. 620, towards the beginning of the king's reign. There were 21 Sutra texts held by the King which were afterward translated. In the first half of the 7th century, the Tibetan script was used for the codification of these sacred Buddhist texts,[12][13] for written civil laws, and for a Tibetan Constitution.

A contemporary academic suggests that the script was instead developed in the second half of the 11th century.[14] New research and writings also suggest that there were one or more Tibetan scripts in use prior to the introduction of the script by Songtsen Gampo and Thonmi Sambhota. The incomplete Dunhuang manuscripts are their key evidence for their hypothesis,[15] while the few discovered and recorded Old Tibetan Annals manuscripts date from 650 and therefore post-date the c. 620 date of development of the original Tibetan script.

Three orthographic standardisations were developed. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of Buddhist scriptures emerged during the early 9th century. Standard orthography has not been altered since then, while the spoken language has changed by, for example, losing complex consonant clusters. As a result, in all modern Tibetan dialects and in particular in the Standard Tibetan of Lhasa, there is a great divergence between current spelling, which still reflects the 9th-century spoken Tibetan, and current pronunciation. This divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of spelling reform, to write Tibetan as it is pronounced; for example, writing Kagyu instead of Bka'-rgyud.[16]

The nomadic Amdo Tibetan and the western dialects of the Ladakhi language, as well as the Balti language, come very close to the Old Tibetan spellings.[14] Despite that, the grammar of these dialectical varieties has considerably changed. To write the modern varieties according to the orthography and grammar of Classical Tibetan would be similar to writing Italian according to Latin orthography, or to writing Hindi according to Sanskrit orthogrophy.[14] However, modern Buddhist practitioners in the Indian subcontinent state that the classical orthography should not be altered even when used for lay purposes. This became an obstacle for many modern Tibetic languages wishing to modernize or to introduce a written tradition. Amdo Tibetan was one of a few examples where Buddhist practitioners initiated a spelling reform.[14] A spelling reform of the Ladakhi language was controversial in part because it was first initiated by Christian missionaries.[14]

Description

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Basic alphabet

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In the Tibetan script, the syllables are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a tsek (་); since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, this mark often functions almost as a space. Spaces are not used to divide words.[17]

The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants.[10] As in other Indic scripts, each consonant letter assumes an inherent vowel; in the Tibetan script it is /a/. The letter ཨ is also the base for dependent vowel marks.

Although some Tibetan dialects are tonal, the language had no tone at the time of the script's invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from segmental features, they can usually be correctly predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words.

Unaspirated
high 		Aspirated
medium 		Voiced
low 		Nasal
low
Letter IPA Letter IPA Letter IPA Letter IPA
Guttural ཀ /ka/ ཁ /kʰa/ ག[i] /ɡa/ ང /ŋa/
Palatal ཅ /tʃa/ ཆ /tʃʰa/ ཇ[i] /dʒa/ ཉ /ɲa/
Dental ཏ /ta/ ཐ /tʰa/ ད[i] /da/ ན /na/
Labial པ /pa/ ཕ /pʰa/ བ[i] /ba/ མ /ma/
Dental ཙ /tsa/ ཚ /tsʰa/ ཛ[i] /dza/ ཝ /wa/
low ཞ[i] /ʒa/ ཟ[i] /za/ འ /ɦa/[18] ⟨ʼa⟩ ཡ /ja/
medium ར /ra/ ལ /la/ ཤ /ʃa/ ས /sa/
high ཧ /ha/ ཨ /a/ ⟨ꞏa⟩
  1. ^ a b c d e f g These voiced values are historical. They have been devoiced in modern Standard Tibetan.

Consonant clusters

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Components of a Tibetan syllable
 
Tibetan map of the Kizil Caves, Tarim Basin. 13th century CE

One aspect of the Tibetan script is that the consonants can be written either as radicals or they can be written in other forms, such as subscript and superscript forming consonant clusters.

To understand how this works, one can look at the radical ཀ /ka/ and see what happens when it becomes ཀྲ /kra/ or རྐ /rka/ (pronounced /ka/). In both cases, the symbol for ཀ /ka/ is used, but when the ར /ra/ is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the ར /ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, it is added as a superscript.[10] ར /ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants, thus རྐ rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster རྙ /ɲa/. Similarly, the consonants ར /ra/, and ཡ /ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants, thus ཀྲ /ʈ ~ ʈʂa/; ཀྱ /ca/.

Besides being written as subscripts and superscripts, some consonants can also be placed in prescript, postscript, or post-postscript positions. For instance, the consonants ག /kʰa/, ད /tʰa/, བ /pʰa/, མ /ma/ and འ /a/ can be used in the prescript position to the left of other radicals, while the position after a radical (the postscript position), can be held by the ten consonants ག /kʰa/, ན /na/, བ /pʰa/, ད /tʰa/, མ /ma/, འ /a/, ར /ra/, ང /ŋa/, ས /sa/, and ལ /la/. The third position, the post-postscript position is solely for the consonants ད /tʰa/ and ས /sa/.[10]

Head letters

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The head (མགོ in Tibetan, Wylie: mgo) letter, or superscript, position above a radical is reserved for the consonants ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/.

  • When ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/ are in superscript position with ཀ /ka/, ཅ /t͡ʃa/, ཏ /ta/, པ /pa/ and ཙ /t͡sa/, there are no changes to their sounds in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
    • རྐ /ka/, རྟ /ta/, རྤ /pa/, རྩ /t͡sa/
    • ལྐ /ka/, ལྕ /t͡ʃa/, ལྟ /ta/, ལྤ /pa/,
    • སྐ /ka/, སྟ /ta/, སྤ /pa/, སྩ /t͡sa/
  • When ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/ are in superscript position with ག /kʰa/, ཇ /t͡ʃʰa/, ད /tʰa/, བ /pʰa/ and ཛ /t͡sʰa/, they lose their aspiration and become voiced in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
    • རྒ /ga/, རྗ /d͡ʒa/, རྡ /da/, རྦ /ba/, རྫ /dza/
    • ལྒ /ga/, ལྗ /d͡ʒa/, ལྡ /da/, ལྦ /ba/,
    • སྒ /ga/, སྡ /da/, སྦ /ba/
  • When ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/ are in superscript position with the nasal consonants ང /ŋa/, ཉ /ɲa/, ན /na/ and མ /ma/, they receive a high tone in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
    • རྔ /ŋa/, རྙ /ɲa/, རྣ /na/, རྨ /ma/
    • ལྔ /ŋa/
    • སྔ /ŋa/, སྙ /ɲa/, སྣ /na/, སྨ /ma/
  • When ལ /la/ is in superscript position with ཧ /ha/, it becomes a voiceless alveolar lateral approximant in Lhasa Tibetan:
    • ལྷ /l̥a/,

Sub-joined letters

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The subscript position under a radical can only be occupied by the consonants ཡ /ja/, ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ཝ /wa/. In this position they are described as བཏགས (Wylie: btags, IPA: /taʔ/), in Tibetan meaning "hung on/affixed/appended", for example བ་ཡ་བཏགས་བྱ (IPA: /pʰa.ja.taʔ.t͡ʃʰa/), except for ཝ, which is simply read as it usually is and has no effect on the pronunciation of the consonant to which it is subjoined, for example ཀ་ཝ་ཟུར་ཀྭ (IPA: /ka.wa.suː.ka/).

Vowel marks

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The vowels used in the alphabet are ཨ /a/, ཨི /i/, ཨུ /u/, ཨེ /e/, and ཨོ /o/. While the vowel /a/ is included in each consonant, the other vowels are indicated by marks; thus ཀ /ka/, ཀི /ki/, ཀུ /ku/, ཀེ /ke/, ཀོ /ko/. The vowels ཨི /i/, ཨེ /e/, and ཨོ /o/ are placed above consonants as diacritics, while the vowel ཨུ /u/ is placed underneath consonants.[10] Old Tibetan included a reversed form of the mark for /i/, the gigu 'verso', of uncertain meaning. There is no distinction between long and short vowels in written Tibetan, except in loanwords, especially transcribed from the Sanskrit.

Vowel mark IPA Vowel mark IPA Vowel mark IPA Vowel mark IPA
ི /i/ ུ /u/ ེ /e/ ོ /o/

Numerical digits

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Main article: Tibetan numerals
Tibetan numerals ༠ ༡ ༢ ༣ ༤ ༥ ༦ ༧ ༨ ༩
Devanagari numerals ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९
Arabic numerals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tibetan fractions ༳ ༪ ༫ ༬ ༭ ༮ ༯ ༰ ༱ ༲
Arabic fractions -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5

Punctuation marks

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Symbol/
Graphemes		 Name Function
༄༅། ། ཡིག་མགོ
yig mgo		 marks beginning of a text, before a headline, front page of a pecha
༃ གཏེར་ཡིག་མགོ
gter yig mgo		 used in place of the yig mgo in terma texts
༁ ཡིག་མགོ་ཨ་ཕྱེད
yig mgo a phyed		 used in place of the yig mgo in terma texts
༆ དཔེ་རྙིང་ཡིག་མགོ
dpe rnying yig mgo		 a variant of the yig mgo found in very old Tibetan texts
༉ བསྐུར་ཡིག་མགོ
bskur yig mgo		 list enumerator (Dzongkha)
་ ཚེག
tseg		 syllable delimiter, also used as a spacer to justify text in pechas
། ཤད
shad		 full stop, comma, or semicolon (marks end of a sentence or clause, and originates from the danda of Indic scripts)
། ། ཉིས་ཤད
nyis shad		 marks end of a paragraph or topic (cp. pilcrow)
༎ །། བཞི་ཤད
bzhi shad		 marks end of a chapter or entire section
། །། གསུམ་ཤད
gsum shad		 same as bzhi shad, but used when the preceding character is ཀ or ག
༑ རིན་ཆེན་སྤུངས་ཤད
rin chen spungs shad		 replaces shad after single, orphaned syllables, indicating to the reader that the preceding syllable continues from text on the previous line
༏ ཚེག་ཤད
tsheg shad		 variant of rin chen spungs shad
༐ ཉིསཚེག་ཤད
nyis tsheg shad		 variant of rin chen spungs shad
༈ སྦྲུལ་ཤད
sbrul shad		 marks the start of a new text, often in a collection of texts, separates chapters, and surrounds inserted text
༔ གཏེར་ཤད
gter shad		 replaces shad and variants thereof in terma texts
༒ རྒྱ་གྲམ་ཤད
rgya gram shad		 sometimes used in place of the yig mgo in terma texts
༸ ཆེ་མགོ
che mgo		 literally, "big head"—used preceding a reference to the Dalai Lama or the name of another important lama or tulku that demands great respect
༴ བསྡུས་རྟགས
bsdus rtags		 repetition
༓ འཛུད་རྟགས་མེ་ལོང་ཅན
'dzud rtags me long can		 caret (indicates text insertion)
༼ ཨང་ཁང་གཡོན་འཁོར
ang khang g.yon 'khor		 left roof bracket
༽ ཨང་ཁང་གཡས་འཁོར
ang khang g.yas 'khor		 right roof bracket
༺ གུག་རྟགས་གཡོན
gug rtags g.yon		 left bracket
༻ གུག་རྟགས་གཡས
gug rtags g.yas		 right bracket

Extended use

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A text in Tibetan script suspected to be Sanskrit in content. From the personal artifact collection of Donald Weir.

The Tibetan alphabet, when used to write other languages such as Balti, Chinese and Sanskrit, often has additional and/or modified graphemes taken from the basic Tibetan alphabet to represent different sounds.

Extended alphabet

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Letter Used in Romanization & IPA
ཫ Balti qa /qa/ (/q/)
ཬ Balti ɽa /ɽa/ (/ɽ/)
ཁ༹ Balti xa /χa/ (/χ/)
ག༹ Balti ɣa /ʁa/ (/ʁ/)
ཕ༹ Chinese fa /fa/ (/f/)
བ༹ Chinese va /va/ (/v/)
གྷ Sanskrit gha /ɡʱ/
ཛྷ Sanskrit jha /ɟʱ, d͡ʒʱ/
ཊ Sanskrit ṭa /ʈ/
ཋ Sanskrit ṭha /ʈʰ/
ཌ Sanskrit ḍa /ɖ/
ཌྷ Sanskrit ḍha /ɖʱ/
ཎ Sanskrit ṇa /ɳ/
དྷ Sanskrit dha /d̪ʱ/
བྷ Sanskrit bha /bʱ/
ཥ Sanskrit ṣa /ʂ/
ཀྵ Sanskrit kṣa /kʂ/
  • In Balti, consonants ka, ra are represented by reversing the letters ཀ ར (ka, ra) to give ཫ ཬ (qa, ɽa).
  • The Sanskrit retroflex consonants ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ṇa, ṣa are represented in Tibetan by reversing the letters ཏ ཐ ད ན ཤ (ta, tha, da, na, sha) to give ཊ ཋ ཌ ཎ ཥ (ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ṇa, ṣa).
  • It is a classical rule to transliterate Sanskrit ca, cha, ja, jha, to Tibetan ཙ ཚ ཛ ཛྷ (tsa, tsha, dza, dzha), respectively. Nowadays, ཅ ཆ ཇ ཇྷ (ca, cha, ja, jha) can also be used.

Extended vowel marks and modifiers

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Vowel Mark Used in Romanization & IPA
ཱ Sanskrit ā /aː/
ཱི Sanskrit ī /iː/
ཱུ Sanskrit ū /uː/
ཻ Sanskrit ai /ɐi̯/
ཽ Sanskrit au /ɐu̯/
ྲྀ Sanskrit ṛ /r̩/
ཷ Sanskrit ṝ /r̩ː/
ླྀ Sanskrit ḷ /l̩/
ཹ Sanskrit ḹ /l̩ː/
ཾ Sanskrit aṃ /◌̃/
ྃ Sanskrit aṃ /◌̃/
ཿ Sanskrit aḥ /h/
Symbol/
Graphemes		 Name Used in Function
྄ srog med Sanskrit suppresses the inherent vowel sound
྅ paluta Sanskrit used for prolonging vowel sounds

Consonant clusters

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In addition to the use of supplementary graphemes, the rules for constructing consonant clusters are amended, allowing any character to occupy the superscript or subscript position, negating the need for the prescript and postscript positions.

Romanization and transliteration

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Romanization and transliteration of the Tibetan script is the representation of the Tibetan script in the Latin script. Multiple Romanization and transliteration systems have been created in recent years, but do not fully represent the true phonetic sound.[note 1] While the Wylie transliteration system is widely used to Romanize Standard Tibetan, others include the Library of Congress system and the IPA-based transliteration (Jacques 2012).

Below is a table with Tibetan letters and different Romanization and transliteration system for each letter, listed below systems are: Wylie transliteration (W), Tibetan pinyin (TP), Dzongkha phonetic (DP), ALA-LC Romanization (A)[19] and THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription (THL).

Letter W TP DP A THL Letter W TP DP A THL Letter W TP DP A THL Letter W TP DP A THL
ཀ ka g ka ka ka ཁ kha k kha kha kha ག ga* k* kha* ga* ga* ང nga ng nga nga nga
ཅ ca j ca ca cha ཆ cha q cha cha cha ཇ ja* q* cha* ja* ja* ཉ nya ny nya nya nya
ཏ ta d ta ta ta ཐ tha t tha tha ta ད da* t* tha* da* da* ན na n na na na
པ pa b pa pa pa ཕ pha p pha pha pa བ ba* p* pha* ba* ba* མ ma m ma ma ma
ཙ tsa z tsa tsa tsa ཚ tsha c tsha tsha tsa ཛ dza* c* tsha* dza* dza* ཝ wa w wa wa wa
ཞ zha* x* sha* zha* zha* ཟ za* s* sa* za* za* འ 'a - a 'a a ཡ ya y ya ya ya
ར ra r ra ra ra ལ la l la la la ཤ sha x sha sha sha ས sa s sa sa sa
ཧ ha h ha ha ha ཨ a a a a a  
* – Only in loanwords

Input method and keyboard layout

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Tibetan

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Tibetan keyboard layout

The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS Windows Vista. The layout has been available in Linux since September 2007. In Ubuntu 12.04, one can install Tibetan language support through Dash / Language Support / Install/Remove Languages, the input method can be turned on from Dash / Keyboard Layout, adding Tibetan keyboard layout. The layout applies the similar layout as in Microsoft Windows.

Mac OS-X introduced Tibetan Unicode support with OS-X version 10.5 and later, now with three different keyboard layouts available: Tibetan-Wylie, Tibetan QWERTY and Tibetan-Otani.

Dzongkha

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Dzongkha keyboard layout
Main article: Dzongkha keyboard layout

The Dzongkha keyboard layout scheme is designed as a simple means for inputting Dzongkha text on computers. This keyboard layout was standardized by the Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) and the Department of Information Technology (DIT) of the Royal Government of Bhutan in 2000.

It was updated in 2009 to accommodate additional characters added to the Unicode & ISO 10646 standards since the initial version. Since the arrangement of keys essentially follows the usual order of the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet, the layout can be quickly learned by anyone familiar with this alphabet. Subjoined (combining) consonants are entered using the Shift key.

The Dzongkha (dz) keyboard layout is included in Microsoft Windows, Android, and most distributions of Linux as part of XFree86.

Unicode

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Main article: Tibetan (Unicode block)

Tibetan was originally one of the scripts in the first version of the Unicode Standard in 1991, in the Unicode block U+1000–U+104F. However, in 1993, in version 1.1, it was removed (the code points it took up would later be used for the Burmese script in version 3.0). The Tibetan script was re-added in July, 1996 with the release of version 2.0.

The Unicode block for Tibetan is U+0F00–U+0FFF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks and special symbols used in religious texts:

Tibetan[1][2][3]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+0F0x ༀ ༁ ༂ ༃ ༄ ༅ ༆ ༇ ༈ ༉ ༊ ་ ༌
 NB  		། ༎ ༏
U+0F1x ༐ ༑ ༒ ༓ ༔ ༕ ༖ ༗ ༘ ༙ ༚ ༛ ༜ ༝ ༞ ༟
U+0F2x ༠ ༡ ༢ ༣ ༤ ༥ ༦ ༧ ༨ ༩ ༪ ༫ ༬ ༭ ༮ ༯
U+0F3x ༰ ༱ ༲ ༳ ༴ ༵ ༶ ༷ ༸ ༹ ༺ ༻ ༼ ༽ ༾ ༿
U+0F4x ཀ ཁ ག གྷ ང ཅ ཆ ཇ ཉ ཊ ཋ ཌ ཌྷ ཎ ཏ
U+0F5x ཐ ད དྷ ན པ ཕ བ བྷ མ ཙ ཚ ཛ ཛྷ ཝ ཞ ཟ
U+0F6x འ ཡ ར ལ ཤ ཥ ས ཧ ཨ ཀྵ ཪ ཫ ཬ
U+0F7x ཱ ི ཱི ུ ཱུ ྲྀ ཷ ླྀ ཹ ེ ཻ ོ ཽ ཾ ཿ
U+0F8x ྀ ཱྀ ྂ ྃ ྄ ྅ ྆ ྇ ྈ ྉ ྊ ྋ ྌ ྍ ྎ ྏ
U+0F9x ྐ ྑ ྒ ྒྷ ྔ ྕ ྖ ྗ ྙ ྚ ྛ ྜ ྜྷ ྞ ྟ
U+0FAx ྠ ྡ ྡྷ ྣ ྤ ྥ ྦ ྦྷ ྨ ྩ ྪ ྫ ྫྷ ྭ ྮ ྯ
U+0FBx ྰ ྱ ྲ ླ ྴ ྵ ྶ ྷ ྸ ྐྵ ྺ ྻ ྼ ྾ ྿
U+0FCx ࿀ ࿁ ࿂ ࿃ ࿄ ࿅ ࿆ ࿇ ࿈ ࿉ ࿊ ࿋ ࿌ ࿎ ࿏
U+0FDx ࿐ ࿑ ࿒ ࿓ ࿔ ࿕ ࿖ ࿗ ࿘ ࿙ ࿚
U+0FEx
U+0FFx
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 16.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points
3.^ Unicode code points U+0F77 and U+0F79 are deprecated in Unicode 5.2 and later

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ See for instance [1] [2]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ Daniels, Peter T. (January 2008). "Writing systems of major and minor languages". In Kachru, Braj B.; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S. N. (eds.). Language in South Asia. pp. 285–308. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511619069.017. ISBN 978-0-521-78653-9.
  2. ^ Masica, Colin (1993). The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 143.
  3. ^ a b Chelliah, Shobhana Lakshmi (2011). A Grammar of Meithei. De Gruyter. p. 355. ISBN 9783110801118. Archived from the original on 2023-04-13. Retrieved 2023-03-19. Meithei Mayek is part of the Tibetan group of scripts, which originated from the Gupta Brahmi script
  4. ^ Singh, Harimohon Thounaojam (January 2011), The Evolution and Recent Development of the Meetei Mayek Script, Cambridge University Press India, p. 28
  5. ^ Tibet: A Political History, p. 12. 1967. Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
  6. ^ The White Annals, pp. 70-73. Gedun Choephel, translated by Samten Norboo. 1978. Tibetan Library and Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India.
  7. ^ Manzardo, Andrew E. "Impression Management and Economic Growth: The Case of the Thakalis of Dhaulagiri Zone" (PDF). Kailash: A Journal of Himalayan Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-11-20. Retrieved 2023-11-20.
  8. ^ Karmācārya, Mādhavalāla (2001). Results of the Nepal German Project on High Mountain Archaeology: Ten documents from Mustang in the Nepali language (1667-1975 A.D.). VGH Wissenschaftsverlag. ISBN 978-3-88280-061-6.
  9. ^ Chamberlain 2008
  10. ^ a b c d e f Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996,
  11. ^ Claude Arpi, Glimpses on the Tibet History, Dharamsala: Tibet Museum, 2016.
  12. ^ William Woodville Rockhill, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, p. 671, at Google Books, United States National Museum, page 671
  13. ^ Berzin, Alexander. A Survey of Tibetan History - Reading Notes Taken by Alexander Berzin from Tsepon, W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967: http://studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/e-books/unpublished_manuscripts/survey_tibetan_history/chapter_1.html Archived 2016-06-17 at the Wayback Machine.
  14. ^ a b c d e Zeisler, Bettina (2006). "Why Ladakhi must not be written – Being part of the Great Tradition Another kind of global thinking". In Anju Saxena; Lars Borin (eds.). Lesser-Known Languages of South Asia. p. 178.
  15. ^ Phuntsok, Thubten. བོད་ཀྱི་ལོ་རྒྱུས་སྤྱི་དོན་པདྨ་ར་གཱའི་ལྡེ་མིག "A General History of Tibet".
  16. ^ Gamble, R. (2018). Reincarnation in Tibetan Buddhism: The Third Karmapa and the Invention of a Tradition. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-069078-6. Retrieved 2024-05-12.
  17. ^ Chan, A.; Noble, A. (2009). Sounds in Translation: Intersections of Music, Technology and Society. DOAB Directory of Open Access Books. ANU E Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-921536-55-7. Retrieved 2024-05-12.
  18. ^ Hill, Nathan W. (2005b). "Once more on the letter འ" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 28 (2): 111–141. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-06-01.; Hill, Nathan W. (2009). "Tibetan <ḥ-> as a plain initial and its place in Old Tibetan phonology" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 32 (1): 115–140. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-06-01. Retrieved 2022-06-01.
  19. ^ "ALA-LC Romanization of Tibetan script (PDF)" (PDF). Library of Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2017-12-29.

Sources

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  • Asher, R. E. ed. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon Press, 1994. 10 vol.
  • Beyer, Stephan V. (1993). The Classical Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
  • Chamberlain, Bradford Lynn. 2008. Script Selection for Tibetan-related Languages in Multiscriptal Environments. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 192:117–132.
  • Csoma de Kőrös, Alexander. (1983). A Grammar of the Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
  • Csoma de Kőrös, Alexander (1980–1982). Sanskrit-Tibetan-English Vocabulary. 2 vols. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
  • Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  • Das, Sarat Chandra: "The Sacred and Ornamental Characters of Tibet". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 57 (1888), pp. 41–48 and 9 plates.
  • Das, Sarat Chandra. (1996). An Introduction to the Grammar of the Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
  • Jacques, Guillaume 2012. A new transcription system for Old and Classical Tibetan Archived 2017-08-09 at the Wayback Machine, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 35.3:89-96.
  • Jäschke, Heinrich August. (1989). Tibetan Grammar. Corrected by Sunil Gupta. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
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