The 1998 Azores Islands earthquake (also known as the Faial earthquake) struck with an epicenter in the Atlantic Ocean, off the Azores Islands of Portugal at 05:19 local time. The 10 km (6.2 mi) deep mainshock, which measured 6.1 on the moment magnitude scale caused significant damage on Faial Island.[1] At least 10 people died, 100 were injured, and 2,500 people were left without homes.[2]
   Terceira Graciosa São Jorge | |
| UTC time | 1998-07-09 05:19:07 |
|---|---|
| ISC event | 1165443 |
| USGS-ANSS | ComCat |
| Local date | 9 July 1998 |
| Local time | 05:19:07 |
| Magnitude | 6.1 Mw |
| Depth | 10 km (6 mi) |
| Epicenter | 12 km north of Horta 38°39′00″N 28°37′34″W / 38.650°N 28.626°W |
| Type | Strike-slip |
| Areas affected | Azores, Portugal |
| Max. intensity | MMI VIII (Severe) |
| Aftershocks | 10,600 recorded |
| Casualties | 10 dead, 100 injured |
Background
editThe Portuguese founded the first settlements on the islands in the 15th century. Since its founding, there has been at least 30 damaging and deadly earthquakes. The first recorded damaging earthquake occurred in 1522—it destroyed Vila Franca do Campo and caused over 5,000 deaths. Deadly earthquakes were also reported in 1787 and 1980.[3] The largest recorded earthquake in the vicinity of the Azores was the 1941 magnitude 8.3 event which was associated with strike-slip faulting on the Eurasian–Nubian plate boundary.[4]
Earthquake
editTectonic setting
editThe Azores Islands are situated atop a triple junction zone where the North American, Eurasian and African plates meet.[5] The northern and southern arm of this junction is represented by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge while the Terceira Ridge forms its eastern arm. The Terceira Ridge joins the Gloria Fault and Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault.[6] With the exception of Flores and Corvo islands situated on the North American Plate, all of the Azores Islands lie along the western part of the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault. There is no agreed plate boundary type for the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault, which bounds the Eurasian and African plates. This feature has been considered a transform fault, leaky transform fault, oblique spreading center and rift by geologists.[7]
Two zones of faulting occur around the 1998 earthquake epicenter; WNW–ESE and NNW–SSE trending systems with steep dip angles to the NNE or SSW and WSW or ENE, respectively. The WNW–ESE striking faults exhibit oblique-normal faulting with left-lateral slip.[7] Faial Island, which rests above an elongated ridge connecting Pico Island, features a rift zone with approximately ESE striking faults with steep dip angles.[5] Called the Pedro Miguel Graben, it hosts seven oblique-normal faults (right-lateral). South of the volcanic caldera and on the western part of Faial Island, similar-striking faults also occur.[7]
Geology
editA strong foreshock was recorded at 05:01 with an epicenter near that of the mainshock, alerting the residents of Horta and other nearby settlements. The mainshock occurred 18 minutes later,[8] and was the a result of pure strike-slip faulting. Faulting in the left-lateral direction ruptured along a north-northwest–south-southeast trending fault. The fault trend was also consistent with the interpretation of seismic data and aftershock distribution. The shock represented a rare and large earthquake of tectonic origin while most other earthquakes on the islands are associated with volcanism.[6] The strike-slip faulting mechanism was also unusual as most earthquakes display normal faulting.[5] A major aftershock sequence persisted for four months. An estimated 10,600 aftershocks were recorded, many of them perceivable by residents in the affected area.[8] Aftershocks also occurred along some faults in the rift zone on Faial Island caused by their reactivation.[5]
Damage
edit
The earthquake was assigned a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII in the northeastern corner of Faial Island, where the greatest destruction was observed.[8] A total of 3,909 buildings were damaged; a large number of them were on Faial Island while some occurred on Pico Island. Serious structural damage was recorded up to 30 km (19 mi) away from the epicenter. Most of these affected buildings were two or three storey masonry constructions. These damage also included the total collapse of masonry walls and large cracks appearing in exterior walls.[9]
A large number of schools on both islands were moderately damaged; the most affected was a kindergarten in Salão, where its external masonry walls collapsed, leading to the demolition of the entire structure. At a school in Espalhafatos, the earthquake caused the separation of concrete and reinforced masonry components in the structure. Many of the schools inspected for damage were constructed of reinforced-concrete thus received slight or no damage.[10]
Many churches which were severely damaged had been constructed of predominantly masonry materials. Only recently were three churches constructed with reinforced concrete. Common damage patterns associated with churches point to shear failure of walls. The Ribeirinha Church was one of the most seriously affected churches; the arch between the nave and apse completely collapsed.[11]
Aftermath
editRescuers spent the night retrieving the bodies of those killed in the rubble and looking for survivors. Concerned about aftershocks, residents of Faial and Pico islands slept inside tents provided by the government.[12] The Portuguese Air Force deployed a Lockheed C-130 Hercules plane carrying tents and thousand blankets from Lisbon; medical teams and supplies also arrived.[2] Prime minister António Guterres, visited Faial Island to survey the devastation.[13] The United States ambassador to Portugal, Gerald S. McGowan, declared the earthquake a disaster on 17 July. In response, the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance aided US$20,000 to the U.S. embassy for the Portuguese government to purchase lavatory items and distribute them to the affected communities.[14] The Portuguese government sent medical doctors and nurses to treat the injured victims on the islands. Sniffer dogs and medical aid were also transported to help in rescue missions.[15] The reconstruction, resettlement and recovery projects were undertaken by the regional government and estimated at €255 million. One of the largest recovery effort in the islands history, it involved constructing 670 prefabricated homes.[16]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ International Seismological Centre, Bulletin of the ISC, Thatcham, United Kingdom [Event 1165443 ].
- ^ a b "UPI Focus: Strong earthquake kills 10 in Azores". United Press International. Lisbon, Portugal. 9 July 1998. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
- ^ Gaspar, J. L.; Queiroz, G.; Ferreira, T.; Amaral, P.; Viveiros, F.; Marques, R.; Silva, C.; Wallenstein, N. (12 April 2011). "Geological Hazards and Monitoring at the Azores (Portugal)". Earthzine. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
- ^ Maria Ana Baptista; Jorge Miguel Miranda; Josep Batlló; Filipe Lisboa; Joaquim Luis; Ramon Maciá (22 August 2016). "New study on the 1941 Gloria Fault earthquake and tsunami". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 16 (8): 1967–1977. Bibcode:2016NHESS..16.1967B. doi:10.5194/nhess-16-1967-2016. hdl:10400.21/7140.
- ^ a b c d F.O. Marques; J. Catalão; A. Hildenbrand; A.C.G. Costa; N.A. Dias (21 October 2014). "The 1998 Faial earthquake, Azores: Evidence for a transform fault associated with the Nubia–Eurasia plate boundary?". Tectonophysics. 633. Elsevier: 115–125. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2014.06.024.
- ^ a b J.F. Borges; M. Bezzeghoud; E. Buforn; C. Pro; A. Fitas (2007). "The 1980, 1997 and 1998 Azores earthquakes and some seismo-tectonic implications" (PDF). Tectonophysics. 435 (1–4). Elsevier: 37–54. Bibcode:2007Tectp.435...37B. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2007.01.008. hdl:10174/6383.
- ^ a b c Matias, L.; Dias, N. A.; Morais, I.; Vales, D.; Carrilho, F.; Madeira, J.; Gaspar, J. L.; Senos, L.; Silveira, A. B. (2007). "The 9th of July 1998 Faial Island (Azores, North Atlantic) seismic sequence". Journal of Seismology. 11: 275–298. doi:10.1007/s10950-007-9052-4.
- ^ a b c Carlos Sousa Oliveira; Mónica Amaral Ferreira; Francisco Mota de Sá (2012). "The concept of a disruption index: application of the overall impact of the July 9, 1998 Faial earthquake (Azores Islands)" (PDF). Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering. 10 (1): 7–25. Bibcode:2012BuEE...10....7O. doi:10.1007/s10518-011-9333-8. S2CID 109897250.
- ^ G. Zonno; C. S. Oliveira; M. A. Ferreira; G. Musacchio; F. Meroni; F. Mota-de-Sá; F. Neves (5 December 2009). "Assessing Seismic Damage Through Stochastic Simulation of Ground Shaking: The Case of the 1998 Faial Earthquake (Azores Islands)". Surveys in Geophysics. 31 (3): 361–381. doi:10.1007/s10712-009-9091-1. S2CID 54605828.
- ^ Jorge Miguel Proença. Damage in schools in the 1998 Faial earthquake in the Azores Islands, Portugal (PDF). Institute of Structures, Territory and Construction Engineering, Higher Technical Institute, Portugal.
- ^ Guerreiro, L.; Azevedo, J.; Proença, J.; Bento, R.; Lopes, M. (2000). "Damage in Ancient Churches During the 9th of July 1998 Azores earthquake" (PDF). Proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Auckland, New Zealand.
- ^ "A thousand homeless after quake". Reuters. The Straits Times. 10 July 1998. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
- ^ Brough, David (10 July 1991). "10 die, 90 injured in Azores earthquake". The Irish Times. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
- ^ USAID (1 January 1999). "OFDA Annual Report for Fiscal Year 1998". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
- ^ "10 killed, 100 injured by earthquake in Azores". Tampa Bay Times. 13 September 2005. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
- ^ "Sismo de 1998 mudou a ilha do Faial para sempre" [1998 earthquake changed Faial island forever]. Lusa News Agency (in Portuguese). Observador. 8 August 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2024.