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Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom

(Redirected from Abolition of serfdom)

The abolition of slavery occurred at different times in different countries. It frequently occurred sequentially in more than one stage – for example, as abolition of the trade in slaves in a specific country, and then as abolition of slavery throughout empires. Each step was usually the result of a separate law or action. This timeline shows abolition laws or actions listed chronologically. It also covers the abolition of serfdom.

Proclamation of the Abolition of Slavery in the French Colonies, 27 April 1848, 1849, by François Auguste Biard, Palace of Versailles

Although slavery of non-prisoners is technically illegal in all countries today, the practice continues in many locations around the world, primarily in Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe, often with government support.[1]

Ancient times

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Main article: Slavery in antiquity

During classical antiquity, several prominent societies in Europe and the ancient Near East regulated enslavement for debt and the related but distinct practice of debt bondage (in which a creditor could extract compulsory labor from a debtor in repayment of their debt, but the debtor was not formally enslaved and was not subject to all the conditions of chattel slavery, such as being perpetually owned, sellable on the open market, or stripped of kinship).

Reforms listed below such as the laws of Solon in Athens, the Lex Poetelia Papiria in Republican Rome, or rules set forth in the Hebrew Bible in the Book of Deuteronomy generally regulated the supply of slaves and debt-servants by forbidding or regulating the bondage of certain privileged groups (thus, the Roman reforms protected Roman citizens, the Athenian reforms protected Athenian citizens, and the rules in Deuteronomy guaranteed freedom to a Hebrew after a fixed duration of servitude), but none abolished slavery, and even what protections were instituted did not apply to foreigners or noncitizen subjects.

Date Jurisdiction Description
Early sixth century BC   Polis of Athens The Athenian lawgiver Solon abolishes debt slavery of Athenian citizens and frees all Athenian citizens who had formerly been enslaved.[2][3] Athenian chattel slavery continued to be practiced, and the loss of debt-bondage as a competing source of compulsory labor may even have spurred slavery to become more important in the Athenian economy henceforth.[4]
3rd century BC Maurya Empire Indian emperor Ashoka abolishes the slave trade.[5]
326 BC Roman Republic Lex Poetelia Papiria abolishes Nexum contracts, a form of pledging the debt bondage of poor Roman citizens to wealthy creditors as security for loans. Chattel slavery was not abolished, and Roman slavery would continue to flourish for centuries.
9–12 AD Xin dynasty Wang Mang, first and only emperor of the Xin dynasty, usurped the Chinese throne and instituted a series of sweeping reforms, including the abolition of slavery and radical land reform from 9–12 A.D.[6][7] However, this and other reforms turned popular and elite sentiment against Wang Mang, and slavery was reinstituted after he was killed by an angry mob in 23 A.D.

Medieval times

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Main article: Slavery in medieval Europe
N.B.: Many of the listed reforms were reversed over succeeding centuries.
Date Jurisdiction Description
590–604   Rome Pope Gregory I bans Jews from owning Christian slaves.[8]
7th century Francia Queen Balthild, a former slave, and the Council of Chalon-sur-Saône (644–655) condemn the enslavement of Christians. Balthild purchases slaves, mostly Saxon, and manumits (frees) them.[9]
741–752   Rome Pope Zachary bans the sale of Christian slaves to Muslims, purchases all slaves acquired in the city by Venetian slave traders, and sets them free.
840   Carolingian Empire
  Venice		 Pactum Lotharii: Venice pledges to neither buy Christian slaves in the Empire, nor sell them to Muslims. Venetian slave traders switch to trading Slavs from the East (Balkan slave trade).
873 Christendom Pope John VIII declares the enslavement of fellow Christians a sin and commands their release.[10]
~900 Byzantine Empire Emperor Leo VI the Wise prohibits voluntary self-enslavement and commands that such contracts shall be null and void and punishable by flagellation for both parties to the contract.[11]
956 Goryeo Dynasty (Korea) Slaves were freed on a large scale in 956 by the Goryeo dynasty.[12] Gwangjong of Goryeo proclaimed the Slave and Land Act (노비안검법, 奴婢按檢法), an act that "deprived nobles of much of their manpower in the form of slaves and purged the old nobility, the meritorious subjects and their offspring and military lineages in great numbers".[13]
960   Venice Slave trade banned in the city under the rule of Doge Pietro IV Candiano.
1080   Norman England William the Conqueror prohibits the sale of any person to "heathens" (non-Christians) as slaves.
1100   Normandy Serfdom no longer present.[14]
1102   Norman England The Council of London bans the slave trade: "Let no one dare hereafter to engage in the infamous business, prevalent in England, of selling men like animals."[15][16]
c. 1160   Norway The Gulating bans the sale of house slaves out of the country.[citation needed]
1171   Ireland All English slaves in the island freed by the Council of Armagh.[16]
1198   France Trinitarian Order founded with the purpose of redeeming war captives.
1214 Korčula The Statute of the Town abolishes slavery.[17][18][better source needed]
1218   Aragon Mercedarians founded in Barcelona with the purpose of ransoming poor Christians enslaved by Muslims.
~1220   Holy Roman Empire The Sachsenspiegel, the most influential German code of law from the Middle Ages, condemns slavery as a violation of man's likeness to God.[19]
1245   Aragon James I bans Jews from owning Christian slaves, but allows them to own Muslims and Pagans.[20]
1256   Bologna Liber Paradisus promulgated. Slavery and serfdom abolished, all serfs in the commune are released.
1315   France Louis X publishes a decree abolishing slavery and proclaiming that "France signifies freedom", that any slave setting foot on French ground should be freed.[21] However some limited cases of slavery continued until the 17th century in some of France's Mediterranean harbours in Provence, as well as until the 18th century in some of France's overseas territories.[22] Most aspects of serfdom are also eliminated de facto between 1315 and 1318.[23]
1318   France King Philip V abolishes serfdom in his domain.[24]
1335   Sweden Slavery abolished (including Sweden's territory in Finland). However, slaves are not banned entry into the country until 1813.[25] Between 1784 and 1847, slavery was practiced in the Swedish-ruled Caribbean island of Saint Barthélemy. Sweden never practiced serfdom, except in a few territories it later acquired which were ruled under a local legal code.
1347   Poland The Statutes of Casimir the Great issued in Wiślica emancipate all non-free people.[26]
1368   Ming Dynasty Emperor Hongwu abolished most forms of slavery,[6] limiting even the highest ranks of household to less than 20 household slaves. Later in the dynasty saw a resurgence of debt servitude, primarily in the south, as a result of population growth against the dearth of arable lands, often taking euphemisms like "adoption" to circumvent its still outlawed status.[27]
1416   Ragusa Slavery and slave trade abolished.
1423   Poland King orders to free all Christian slaves.[28]
1435   Canary Islands Pope Eugene IV's Sicut Dudum bans enslavement of baptised Christians, "or those freely seeking baptism" in the Canary Islands on pain of excommunication.[29]
1477   Castile Isabella I bans slavery in newly conquered territories.[30]
1480   Galicia Remnant serfdom abolished by the Catholic Monarchs.[31]
1486   Aragon Ferdinand II promulgates the Sentence of Guadalupe, abolishing Carolingian-remnant serfdom (remença) in Old Catalonia.
1490   Castile After a long court case, the Catholic Monarchs order that all La Gomera natives enslaved in the aftermath of the 1488 rebellion must be freed and returned to the island at Conquistador Pedro de Vera's expense. De Vera is also relieved from his post as Governor of Gran Canaria in 1491.[32]
1493 Queen Isabella bans the enslavement of Native Americans unless they are hostile or cannibalistic.[30] Native Americans are ruled to be subjects of the Crown. Columbus is preempted from selling Indian captives in Seville and those already sold are tracked, purchased from their buyers and released.

1500–1700

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Date Jurisdiction Description
1503   Castile Native Americans allowed to travel to Spain only on their own free will.[33]
1512 The Laws of Burgos establish limits to the treatment of natives in the Encomienda system.
1518   Spain Decree of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V establishing the importation of African slaves to the Americas, under monopoly of Laurent de Gouvenot, in an attempt to discourage enslavement of Native Americans.
1528 Charles V forbids the transportation of Native Americans to Europe, even on their own will, in an effort to curtail their enslavement. Encomiendas are banned from collecting tribute in gold with the reasoning that Natives were selling their children to get it.[34]
1530 Outright slavery of Native Americans under any circumstance is banned. However, forced labor under the Encomienda continues.
1536 The Welser family is dispossessed of the Asiento monopoly (granted in 1528) following complaints about their treatment of Native American workers in Venezuela.
1537 New World Pope Paul III forbids slavery of the indigenous peoples of the Americas and any other population to be discovered, establishing their right to freedom and property (Sublimis Deus).[35]
1542   Spain The New Laws ban slave raiding in the Americas and abolish the slavery of natives, but replace it with other systems of forced labor like the repartimiento. Slavery of Black Africans continues.[22] New limits are imposed to the Encomienda.
1549 Encomiendas banned from using forced labor.
1550-1551 Valladolid Debate on the innate rights of indigenous peoples of the Americas.
1552 Bartolomé de las Casas, "the first to expose the oppression of indigenous peoples by Europeans in the Americas and to call for the abolition of slavery there."[36]
1562   Mughal Empire Akbar I restricted enslavement by his soldiery.[37]
1570   Portugal King Sebastian of Portugal bans the enslavement of Native Americans under Portuguese rule, allowing only the enslavement of hostile ones. This law was highly influenced by the Society of Jesus, which had missionaries in direct contact with Brazilian tribes.
1574   England Last remaining serfs emancipated by Elizabeth I.[23]
  Philippines Slavery abolished by royal decree.[38]
1588   Lithuania The Third Statute of Lithuania abolishes slavery.[39]
1590   Japan Toyotomi Hideyoshi bans slavery except as punishment for criminals.[40]
1595   Portugal Trade of Chinese slaves banned.[41]
1602   England The Clifton Star Chamber Case set a precedent, that impressing / enslaving children to serve as actors was illegal.
1609   Spain The Moriscos, many of whom are serfs, are expelled from Peninsular Spain unless they become slaves voluntarily (known as moros cortados, "cut Moors") However, a large proportion avoid expulsion or manage to return.[42]
1624   Portugal Enslavement of Chinese banned.[43][44]
1648   Cossack Hetmanate The system of serfdom was partially weakened, a part of serfs were freed. Manors of the Polish szlachta and the Catholic Church were given under the government control.
1649   Russia The sale of Russian slaves to Muslims is banned.[45]
1652   Providence Plantations Roger Williams and Samuel Gorton work to pass legislation abolishing slavery in Providence Plantations, the first attempt of its kind in North America. It does not go into effect.[46]
1660   England Tenures Abolition Act 1660
1677   Maratha Empire Shivaji I banned, freed and stopped import and export of all slaves under his Empire.[47][48][49]
1679   Russia Feodor III converts all Russian field slaves into serfs.[50][51]
1683   Spanish Chile Slavery of Mapuche prisoners of war abolished.[52]
1687   Spanish Florida Fugitive slaves from the Thirteen Colonies granted freedom in return for conversion to Catholicism and four years of military service.
1688   Pennsylvania The Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery is the first religious petition against African slavery in what would become the United States.

1701–1799

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Date Jurisdiction Description
1706   England In Smith v. Browne & Cooper, Sir John Holt, Lord Chief Justice of England, rules that "as soon as a Negro comes into England, he becomes free. One may be a villein in England, but not a slave."[53][54]
1711–1712   Imereti Slave trade banned by Mamia I of Imereti.
1712   Spain Moros cortados expelled.[55]
1715   North Carolina
  South Carolina		 Native American slave trade in the American Southeast reduces with the outbreak of the Yamasee War.
1723   Russia Peter the Great converts all house slaves into house serfs, effectively making slavery illegal in Russia.
1723–1730   Qing Dynasty The Yongzheng emancipation seeks to free all slaves to strengthen the autocratic ruler through a kind of social leveling that creates an undifferentiated class of free subjects under the throne. Although these new regulations freed the vast majority of slaves, wealthy families continued to use slave labor into the twentieth century.[56]
1732   Georgia Province established without African slavery in sharp contrast to neighboring colony of Carolina. In 1738, James Oglethorpe warns against changing that policy, which would "occasion the misery of thousands in Africa."[57] Native American slavery is legal throughout Georgia, however, and African slavery is later introduced in 1749.
1738   Spanish Florida Fort Mosé, the first legal settlement of free blacks in what is today the United States, is established. Word of the settlement sparks the Stono Rebellion in Carolina the following year.
1746   Great Britain Heritable Jurisdictions (Scotland) Act 1746
Tenures Abolition Act 1746
1761   Portugal The Marquis of Pombal bans the importation of slaves to metropolitan Portugal.[58] encouraging instead the trade of African slaves to Brazil.[59][60][61][62]
1766   Spain Muhammad III of Morocco purchases the freedom of all Muslim slaves in Seville, Cádiz, and Barcelona.[63]
1770   Circassia The Circassians of the Abdzakh region started a great revolution in Circassian territory in 1770. Classes such as slaves, nobles and princes were completely abolished. The Abdzakh Revolution coincides with the French Revolution. While many French nobles took refuge in Russia, some of the Circassian nobles took the same path and took refuge in Russia.[64]
1771   Kingdom of Sardinia Serfdom abolished in the lands ruled by the House of Savoy.[65]
1772   England Somersett's case rules that no slave can be forcibly removed from England. This case was generally taken at the time to have decided that the condition of slavery did not exist under English law in England and Wales.[66]
1773   Portugal A new decree by the Marquis of Pombal, signed by the king Dom José, emancipates fourth-generation slaves[58] and every child born to an enslaved mother after the decree was published.[67]
1774   East India Company Government of Bengal passed regulations 9 and 10 of 1774, prohibiting the trade in slaves without written deed, and the sale of anyone not already enslaved.[68]
1775   Great Britain Colliers and Salters (Scotland) Act 1775
  Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Abolition Society formed in Philadelphia, the first abolition society within the territory that is now the United States of America.
  United States Atlantic slave trade banned or suspended in the United Colonies during the Revolutionary War. This was a continuation of the Thirteen Colonies' non-importation agreements against Britain, as an attempt to cut all economic ties with Britain during the war.[69]
1777   Madeira Slavery abolished.[70]
  Vermont The Constitution of the Vermont Republic partially bans slavery,[70] freeing men over 21 and women older than 18 at the time of its passage.[71] The ban is not strongly enforced.[72][73]
1778   Scotland Joseph Knight successfully argues that Scots law cannot support the status of slavery.[74]
1779   British America The Philipsburg Proclamation frees all slaves who desert the American rebels, regardless of their willingness to fight for the Crown.
1780   Pennsylvania An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery passed, freeing future children of slaves. Those born prior to the Act remain enslaved for life. The Act becomes a model for other Northern states. Last slaves freed 1847.[75]
1781   Archduchy of Austria Joseph II abolishes personal bondage of serfs and allows their freedom of movement with the Serfdom Patent of 1781.
1783   Russian Empire Slavery abolished in the recently annexed Crimean Khanate.[76]
  Massachusetts Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court rules slavery unconstitutional, a decision based on the 1780 Massachusetts constitution. All slaves are immediately freed.[77]
  Austrian Empire Joseph II abolishes slavery in Bukovina.[78]
  New Hampshire Gradual abolition of slavery begins.
  British America After being settled into by Quakers, Beaver Harbour, New Brunswick becomes the first settlement in British North America to ban slavery, forbidding slave masters from entering.[79]
1784   Connecticut Gradual abolition of slavery, freeing future children of slaves, and later all slaves.[80]
  Rhode Island Gradual abolition of slavery begins.
1785   Kingdom of Hungary In response to the Revolt of Horea, Joseph II abolishes personal bondage and allows freedom of movement for peasants in Hungary with the urbarium of 22 August 1785.[81]
1786   New South Wales A policy of completely banning slavery is adopted by governor-designate Arthur Phillip for the soon-to-be established colony.[82]
1787   United States The United States in Congress Assembled passes the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, outlawing any new slavery in the Northwest Territories.
  Sierra Leone Founded by Great Britain as a colony for emancipated slaves.[83]
  Great Britain Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade founded in Great Britain.[70]
1788 Sir William Dolben's Act regulating the conditions on British slave ships enacted.
  France Abolitionist Society of the Friends of the Blacks founded in Paris.
  Denmark Limits imposed to serfdom under the Stavnsbånd system.
1789   France Last remaining seigneurial privileges over peasants abolished.[84]
1791   Poland-Lithuania The Constitution of May 3, 1791 introduced elements of political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the protection of the government; thus, it mitigated the worst abuses of serfdom.
1791   France Emancipation of second-generation slaves in the colonies.[63]
1792   Denmark-Norway Transatlantic slave trade declared illegal after 1803, though slavery continues in Danish colonies to 1848.[85]
1792   Saint Helena The importation of slaves to the island of Saint Helena was banned in 1792, but the phased emancipation of over 800 resident slaves did not take place until 1827, which was still some six years before the British parliament passed legislation to ban slavery in the colonies.[86]
1793   Saint-Domingue Commissioner Leger-Felicite Sonthonax abolishes slavery in the northern part of the colony. His colleague Etienne Polverel does the same in the rest of the territory in October.
  Upper Canada Importation of slaves banned by the Act Against Slavery.
1794   France Slavery abolished in all French territories and possessions.[87]
  United States The Slave Trade Act bans both American ships from participating in the slave trade and the export of slaves in foreign ships.[69]
  Poland-Lithuania The Proclamation of Połaniec, issued during the Kościuszko Uprising, ultimately abolished serfdom in Poland, and granted substantial civil liberties to all peasants.
1798   Occupied Malta Slavery banned in the islands after their capture by French forces under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte.[88]
1799   New York Gradual emancipation act freeing the future children of slaves, and all slaves in 1827.[89]
  Scotland The Colliers (Scotland) Act 1799 ends the legal servitude or slavery of coal and salt miners that had been established in 1606.[90]

1800–1829

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    Illustration from the book: The Black Man's Lament, Or, How to Make Sugar by Amelia Opie (London, 1826)
Date Jurisdiction Description
1800 Joseon State slavery banned in 1800. Private slavery continued until being banned in 1894.
1800   United States American citizens banned from investment and employment in the international slave trade in an additional Slave Trade Act.
1802   France Napoleon re-introduces slavery in sugarcane-growing colonies.[91]
  Ohio State constitution abolishes slavery.
1803   Denmark-Norway Abolition of Danish participation in the transatlantic slave trade takes effect on 1 January.
1804   New Jersey Slavery abolished.[92]
  Haiti Haiti declares independence and abolishes slavery.[70]
1805   United Kingdom A bill for abolition passes in House of Commons but is rejected in the House of Lords.
1806   United States In a message to Congress, Thomas Jefferson calls for criminalizing the international slave trade, asking Congress to "withdraw the citizens of the United States from all further participation in those violations of human rights ... which the morality, the reputation, and the best of our country have long been eager to proscribe."
1807 International slave trade made a felony in Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves; this act takes effect on 1 January 1808, the earliest date permitted under the Constitution.[93]
  United Kingdom Abolition of the Slave Trade Act abolishes slave trading throughout the British Empire. Captains fined £100 per slave transported. Patrols sent to the African coast to arrest slaving vessels. The West Africa Squadron (Royal Navy) is established to suppress slave trading; by 1865, nearly 150,000 people freed by anti-slavery operations.[94]
  Warsaw Constitution abolishes serfdom.[95]
  Prussia The Stein-Hardenberg Reforms abolish serfdom.[95]
  Michigan Territory Judge Augustus Woodward denies the return of two slaves owned by a man in Windsor, Upper Canada. Woodward declares that any man "coming into this Territory is by law of the land a freeman."[96]
1808   United States Importation and exportation of slaves made a crime.[97]
1810   New Spain Independence leader Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla proclaimed the abolition of slavery three months after the start of the Independence of Mexico from Spain.
1811   United Kingdom Slave trading made a felony punishable by transportation for both British subjects and foreigners.
  Spain The Cortes of Cádiz abolish the last remaining seigneurial rights.[63]
  British East India Company The Company issued regulations 10 of 1811, prohibiting the transport of slaves into Company territory, adding to the 1774 restrictions.[68]
  Chile The First National Congress approves a proposal of Manuel de Salas that declares Freedom of Wombs, freeing the children of slaves born in Chilean territory, regardless of their parents' condition. The slave trade is banned and the slaves who stay for more than six months in Chilean territory are automatically declared freedmen.
1812   Spain The Cortes of Cádiz pass the Spanish Constitution of 1812, giving citizenship and equal rights to all residents in Spain and her territories, excluding slaves. During deliberations, Deputies José Miguel Guridi y Alcocer and Agustín Argüelles unsuccessfully argue for the abolition of slavery.[63]
1813   New Spain Independence leader José María Morelos y Pavón declares slavery abolished in Mexico in the documents Sentimientos de la Nación.
  United Provinces Law of Wombs passed by the Assembly of Year XIII. Slaves born after 31 January 1813 will be granted freedom when they are married, or on their 16th birthday for women and 20th for men, and upon their manumission will be given land and tools to work it.[98]
1814   United Provinces After the occupation of Montevideo, all slaves born in modern Uruguayan territory are declared free.
  Netherlands Slave trade abolished.
1815   France Napoleon abolishes the slave trade.
  Portugal Slave trade banned north of the Equator in return for a £750,000 payment by Britain.[99]
  Florida British withdrawing after the War of 1812 leave a fully armed fort in the hands of maroons, escaped slaves and their descendants, and their Seminole allies. Becomes known as Negro Fort.
  United Kingdom
  Portugal
  Sweden-Norway
  France
  Austria
  Russia
  Spain
  Prussia		 The Congress of Vienna declares its opposition to the slave trade.[100]
1816   Estonia Serfdom abolished.
  Florida Negro Fort destroyed in the Battle of Negro Fort by U.S. forces under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
  Algeria Algiers bombarded by the British and Dutch navies in an attempt to end North African piracy and slave raiding in the Mediterranean. 3,000 slaves freed.
1817   Courland Serfdom abolished.
  United Kingdom
  Spain		 Bilateral treaty abolishing the slave trade.[101]
  Spain Ferdinand VII signs a cedula banning the importation of slaves in Spanish possessions beginning in 1820,[63] in return for a £400,000 payment from Britain.[99] However, some slaves are still smuggled in after this date. Both slave ownership and internal commerce in slaves remained legal.
  Venezuela Simon Bolivar calls for the abolition of slavery.[63]
  New York 4 July 1827 set as date to free all ex-slaves from indenture.[102]
  United Provinces Constitution supports the abolition of slavery, but does not ban it.[63]
1818   United Kingdom
  Portugal		 Bilateral treaty abolishing the slave trade.[103]
  France Slave trade banned.
  United Kingdom
  Netherlands		 Bilateral treaty taking additional measures to enforce the 1814 ban on slave trading.[103]
1819   Livonia Serfdom abolished.
  Upper Canada Attorney-General John Robinson declares all black residents free.
  Hawaii The ancient Hawaiian kapu system is abolished during the ʻAi Noa, and with it the distinction between the kauwā slave class and the makaʻāinana (commoners).[104]
1820   United States The Compromise of 1820 bans slavery north of the 36º 30' line; the Act to Protect the Commerce of the United States and Punish the Crime of Piracy is amended to consider the maritime slave trade as piracy, making it punishable with death.
  Indiana The supreme court orders almost all slaves in the state to be freed in Polly v. Lasselle.
  Spain The 1817 abolition of the slave trade takes effect.[105]
1821   Mexico The Plan of Iguala frees the slaves born in Mexico.[63]
  United States
  Spain		 In accordance with Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, Florida becomes a territory of the United States. A main reason was Spain's inability or unwillingness to capture and return escaped slaves.
  Peru Abolition of slave trade and implementation of a plan to gradually end slavery.[63]
  Gran Colombia Emancipation for sons and daughters born to slave mothers, program for compensated emancipation set.[106]
1822   Haiti Jean Pierre Boyer annexes Spanish Haiti and abolishes slavery there.
  Liberia Founded by the American Colonization Society as a colony for emancipated slaves.
  Muscat and Oman
  United Kingdom		 First bilateral treaty limiting the slave trade in Zanzibar (Moresby Treaty).
1823   Chile Slavery abolished.[70]
  United Kingdom The Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions (Anti-Slavery Society) is founded.
  Greece Prohibition of slavery is enshrined in the Greek Constitution of 1823, during the Greek War of Independence.[107]
1824   United Kingdom Slave Trade Act 1824
  Mexico The new constitution effectively abolishes slavery.
  Central America Slavery abolished.[108]
1825   Uruguay Importation of slaves banned.
  Haiti France, with warships at the ready, demanded Haiti compensate France for its loss of slaves and its slave colony
1827   United Kingdom
  Sweden-Norway		 Bilateral treaty abolishing the slave trade.[103]
  New York Last vestiges of slavery abolished. Children born between 1799 and 1827 are indentured until age 25 (females) or age 28 (males).[109]
  Saint Helena Phased emancipation of over 800 resident slaves, some six years before the British parliament passed legislation to ban slavery in all colonies.[86]
1829   Mexico Last slaves freed just as the first president of partial African ancestry (Vicente Guerrero) is elected.[70]

1830–1849

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    An anti-slavery map with an unusual perspective centered on West Africa, which is in the light, and contrasting the Americas and Europe in the dark. By Julius Rubens Ames, 1847.
Date Jurisdiction Description
1830   Coahuila y Tejas Mexican President Anastasio Bustamante attempts to implement the abolition of slavery. To circumvent the law, Anglo-Texans declare their slaves "indentured servants for life".[110]
1830   Ottoman Empire The Firman of 1830 theoretically emancipates all white slaves in the Ottoman Empire.[111]
1830   Uruguay Slavery abolished.
1831   Bolivia Slavery abolished.[70]
  Brazil Law of 7 November 1831, abolishing the maritime slave trade, banning any importation of slaves, and granting freedom to slaves illegally imported into Brazil. The law was seldom enforced prior to 1850, when Brazil, under British pressure, adopted additional legislation to criminalize the importation of slaves.
1832   Greece Slavery abolished with independence.
1832   Coahuila y Tejas Anahuac Disturbances: Juan Davis Bradburn, American-born Mexican officer at Anahuac,Texas, confronts slave-owning American settlers, enforcing Mexican abolition of slavery and refusing to hand over two escaped slaves.
1834   United Kingdom The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 comes into force, abolishing slavery throughout most of the British Empire but on a gradual basis over the next six years.[112] Legally frees 700,000 in the West Indies, 20,000 in Mauritius, and 40,000 in South Africa. The exceptions are the territories controlled by the East India Company and Ceylon.[113]
  France French Society for the Abolition of Slavery founded in Paris.[114]
1835   Serbia Freedom granted to all slaves in the moment they step on Serb soil.[115]
  United Kingdom
  France		 Bilateral treaties abolishing the slave trade.[103]
  United Kingdom
  Denmark
  Peru A decree of Felipe Santiago Salaverry re-legalizes the importation of slaves from other Latin American countries. The line "no slave shall enter Peru without becoming free" is taken out of the Constitution in 1839.[116]
1836   Portugal Prime Minister Sá da Bandeira bans the transatlantic slave trade and the importation and exportation of slaves to or from the Portuguese colonies south of the equator.
1837   Spain Slavery abolished outside of the colonies.[63]
1838   United Kingdom Most slaves in the colonies become free after a period of forced apprenticeship following the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions (now London Anti-Slavery Society) winds up.
1839   United Kingdom The British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (after several changes, now known as Anti-Slavery International) is founded.
  East India Company The Indian indenture system is abolished in territories controlled by the company, but this is reversed in 1842.
  Catholic Church Pope Gregory XVI's In supremo apostolatus resoundingly condemns slavery and the slave trade.
1840   United Kingdom
  Venezuela		 Bilateral treaty abolishing the slave trade.
  United Kingdom First World Anti-Slavery Convention meets in London.
  New Zealand Taking slaves banned by Treaty of Waitangi.[117]
1841   United Kingdom
  France
  Russia
  Prussia
  Austria		 Quintuple Treaty agreeing to suppress the slave trade.[70]
  United States United States v. The Amistad finds that the slaves of La Amistad were illegally enslaved and were legally allowed, as free men, to fight their captors by any means necessary.
1842   United Kingdom
  Portugal		 Bilateral treaty extending the enforcement of the slave trade ban to Portuguese ships south of the Equator.
  Paraguay Law for the gradual abolition of slavery passed.[63]
1843   United Kingdom Slave Trade Act 1843
  East India Company The Indian Slavery Act, 1843, Act V abolishes slavery in territories controlled by the company.
  United Kingdom
  Uruguay		 Bilateral treaties abolishing the slave trade.[103]
  United Kingdom
  Mexico
  United Kingdom
  Chile
  United Kingdom
  Bolivia
1844   Moldavia Mihail Sturdza abolishes slavery in Moldavia.
  Kingdom of Hungary The serfs were given the Right to Property. But until the April Laws, they were subject to different taxes and legal procedures (jus gladii) than burghers.[118]
  Paraguay Slave trade abolished.[63]
  Dominican Republic Dominican Republic declares independence from Haiti; abolition of slavery reinforced. [119]
1845   United Kingdom 36 Royal Navy ships assigned to the Anti-Slavery Squadron, making it one of the largest fleets in the world.
  Illinois In Jarrot v. Jarrot, the Illinois Supreme Court frees the last indentured ex-slaves in the state who were born after the Northwest Ordinance.[120]
1846   Tunisia Slavery abolished in Tunisia under Ahmed Bey rule.[121]
1847   Ottoman Empire Suppression of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf: slave trade from Africa (via the Persian Gulf route) abolished.[122]
  Saint Barthélemy Last slaves freed.[123]
  Pennsylvania The last indentured ex-slaves, born before 1780 (fewer than 100 in the 1840 census[124]) are freed.
  Danish West Indies Royal edict ruling the freedom of children born from female slaves and the total abolition of slavery after 12 years. Dissatisfaction causes a slave rebellion in Saint Croix the next year.
1848   Hungary The April laws completely abolished serfdom in Hungary (excluding Transylvania) and Croatia.
  Austria Serfdom abolished.[125][126][127]
  France Slavery abolished in the colonies. Gabon is founded as a settlement for emancipated slaves.
  Danish West Indies Governor Peter von Scholten declares the immediate and total emancipation of all slaves in an attempt to end the slave revolt. For this he is recalled and tried for treason, but the charges are later dropped.[70][123][128]
  Denmark Last remains of the Stavnsbånd effectively abolished.
  United Kingdom
  Muscat and Oman		 Bilateral treaties abolishing the slave trade.[103]
1849   United Kingdom
  Trucial States
  Sierra Leone The Royal Navy destroys the slave factory of Lomboko.

1850–1899

edit
  •  
    Medical examination photo of Gordon showing his scourged back, widely distributed by Abolitionists to expose the brutality of slavery
Date Jurisdiction Description
1850   United States The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 requires the return of escaped slaves to their owners regardless of the state they are in.
  Brazil Eusébio de Queirós Law (Law 581 of 4 September 1850) criminalizing the maritime slave trade as piracy, and imposing other criminal sanctions on the importation of slaves (already banned in 1831).[129]
1851   Brazil

  Uruguay

Bilateral treaty of 12 October, Uruguay accepts returning to Brazil the escaped slaves from that country. Brazilians who owned land in Uruguay were allowed to have slaves in their properties.
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Slavery nominally abolished along with opium, gambling, polygamy and foot binding.[130][131][132]
  New Granada Slavery abolished.[106] After years of laws that only purported a partial advancement towards abolition, President José Hilario López pushed Congress to pass total abolition on 21 May. Former owners were compensated with government issued bonds.[133]
  Ecuador Slavery abolished in the country by José María Urvina.[134]
Lagos Reduction of Lagos: The British capture the city of Lagos and replace King Kosoko with Akitoye because of the former's refusal to ban the slave trade.
1852   Hawaii 1852 Constitution officially declared slavery illegal.[135]
  United Kingdom
Lagos		 Bilateral treaty banning the slave trade and human sacrifice.
1853   Argentina Slavery abolished with the sanction of a new federal Constitution.[136]
1854   Peru Slavery abolished by Ramón Castilla.[137][70]
  Ottoman Empire The Firman of 1854 prohibit the Circassian slave trade.[138]
  Venezuela Slavery abolished.[70][106]
1855   Moldavia Slavery abolished.
1856   Wallachia
1857   United States Dred Scott v. Sandford rules that black slaves and their descendants cannot gain American citizenship and are not entitled to freedom even if they live in a free state for years.
  Egypt Firman of 1857 banning the trade of Black African (Zanj) slaves.[citation needed]
1857   Ottoman Empire The Firman of 1857 prohibit the African slave trade.[139]
1858   United Kingdom British government takes direct control of all land owned by the East India Company, making previously East India Company directly managed territory subject to the slavery laws applicable in the rest of the British Empire.
1859 Atlantic Ocean Definitive suppression of the transatlantic slave trade.
  United States The Wyandotte Constitution establishes the future state of Kansas as a free state, after four years of armed conflict between pro-slavery and anti-slavery groups in the territory. Southern dominance in the U.S. Senate delays the admission of Kansas as a state until 1861.
  Russia Kazakhs banned from having slaves, although slavery persists in some areas through the rest of the century.[140][better source needed]
1860   United States Last slave ship to unload illegally on U.S. territory, the Clotilda.
1861   Russia The Emancipation reform of 1861 abolishes serfdom.[141]
  United States The election of Abraham Lincoln leads to the attempted secession of eleven slaveholding states and the American Civil War.
  United Kingdom
British India

Indian Penal Code explicitly prohibits slavery in British administered territory.

1862   United States Congress passes the District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act, freeing all slaves in the District of Columbia.[142]
  United States
  United Kingdom		 Bilateral treaty abolishing the slave trade (African Slave Trade Treaty Act).[103]
  Spanish Cuba Slave trade abolished.[70]
  United States Nathaniel Gordon becomes the only person hanged in U.S. history "for being engaged in the slave trade".
1863   Netherlands Slavery abolished in the colonies, emancipating 33,000 slaves in Surinam, 12,000 in Curaçao and Dependencies,[143] and an indeterminate number in the East Indies.
  United States Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all slaves in Confederate-controlled areas. Most slaves in "border states" are freed by state action, and a separate law frees the slaves in Washington, D.C.
  Iceland Exemptions introduced to serfdom under the Vistarband system.
  Chatham Islands Slavery abolished.[144]
1864   Congress Poland Serfdom abolished.[145]
1865   United States Slavery abolished, except as punishment for crime, by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. It frees all remaining slaves, about 40,000, in the border slave states that did not secede.[146] Thirty out of thirty-six states vote to ratify it; New Jersey, Delaware, Kentucky, and Mississippi vote against. Mississippi does not officially ratify it until 2013.[147]
  Texas Juneteenth: U.S. General Gordon Granger proclaims the end of slavery in Galveston.
  Spain Spanish Abolitionist Society founded in Madrid by Julio Vizcarrondo, José Julián Acosta and Joaquín Sanromá.[63]
1866   Oklahoma Slavery abolished.[148] U.S. government treaties with the Five Tribes that governed the Indian Territory, which previously allied with the Confederacy, required them to abolish slavery for renewed U.S. recognition of their continued independence.
  Iowa Thirteenth Amendment ratified.
  New Jersey
1867   Spain Law of Repression and Punishment of the Slave Trade.[63]
  United States Peonage Act of 1867, mostly targeting use of Native American peons in New Mexico Territory. Slavery among native tribes in Alaska was abolished after the purchase from Russia in 1867.[149]
1868   Spanish Cuba Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and other independence leaders free their slaves and proclaim the independence of Cuba, starting the Ten Years War.
1869   Portugal Louis I abolishes slavery in all Portuguese territories and colonies.
  Paraguay Slavery abolished.
1870   Spain Amidst great opposition from the Cuban and Puerto Rican planters, Segismundo Moret drafts a "Law of Free Wombs" that frees children of slaves, slaves older than 65 years, and slaves serving in the Spanish Army, beginning in 1872.[63]
  Texas Thirteenth Amendment ratified.
1871   Brazil Rio Branco Law (Law of Free Birth) declares the children born to slave mothers free.[150]
  Japan Abolition of the han system or Japanese feudalism.
1873   United Kingdom Slave Trade Act 1873
  Puerto Rico Slavery abolished.
  United Kingdom
  Zanzibar
  Madagascar		 Triple treaty abolishing the slave trade.[103]
1874   Gold Coast Slavery abolished.[151]
1877   Egypt The Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention abolishes the slave trade gradually in 1877–1884. This also gradually abolishes slavery itself over the next decades.
1879   Bulgaria Slavery abolished with independence. The Constitution states that any slave that enters Bulgarian territory is immediately freed.
1880   Ottoman Empire The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880 prohibit the Red Sea slave trade and give the British the right to stop all slave ships in Ottoman waters.[152]
1882   Ottoman Empire A firman emancipates all slaves, white and black.[153]
1884   Cambodia Slavery abolished.
1885   Brazil Saraiva-Cotegipe Law passed, freeing all slaves over the age of 60 and creating other measures for the gradual abolition of slavery, such as a Manumissions Fund administered by the State.
1886   Spanish Cuba Slavery abolished.[70]
1888   Brazil Golden Law decreeing the total abolition of slavery with immediate effect.[154]
1889   Italy An Italian court finds that Josephine Bakhita was never legally enslaved according to Italian, British, or Egyptian law and is a free woman.
1889   Ottoman Empire The Kanunname of 1889 prohibit the African slavery and slave trade in the Ottoman Empire.[155]
1890   United Kingdom
  France
  Germany
  Portugal
  Congo
  Italy
  Spain
  Netherlands
  Belgium
  Russia
  Austria-Hungary
  Sweden-Norway
  Denmark
  United States
  Ottoman Empire
  Zanzibar

  Persia

Brussels Conference Act – a collection of anti-slavery measures to put an end to the slave trade on land and sea, especially in the Congo Basin, the Ottoman Empire, and the East African coast.
1894   Korea Slavery abolished, but it survives in practice until 1930.[156]
  Iceland Vistarband effectively abolished (but not de jure).
1895   Taiwan Taiwan is annexed by Japan, where slavery has been abolished.
1895   Egypt Slavery abolished.[157]
  Italian Somaliland First slaves freed[158]
1896   Madagascar Slavery abolished.
1897   Zanzibar Slavery abolished[159] except in the case of concubines (abolished in 1909[160]).
  Siam Slave trade abolished.[161]
  Bassora Children of freedmen issued separate certificates of liberation to avoid enslavement and separation from their parents.[citation needed]
1899   Ndzuwani Slavery abolished.

1900–1949

edit
Date Jurisdiction Description
1900   Guam Slavery abolished 22 February 1900, by proclamation of Richard P. Leary.[162]
1901   Delaware Thirteenth Amendment ratified.
1902   Cameroon Gradual abolition of slavery.[163]
1903   French Sudan "Slave" no longer used as an administrative category.
1904   United Kingdom
  Germany
  Denmark
  Spain
  France
  Italy
  Netherlands
  Portugal
  Russia		 International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic signed in Paris. Only France, the Netherlands and Russia extend the treaty to the whole extent of their colonial empires with immediate effect, and Italy extends it to Eritrea but not to Italian Somaliland.[164]
  British East Africa Slavery abolished.[165]
1905   French West Africa Slavery formally abolished. Though up to one million slaves gain their freedom, slavery continues to exist in practice for decades afterward.
1906   China Slavery abolished beginning on 31 January 1910. Adult slaves are converted into hired laborers and the minors freed upon reaching age 25.[166]
  Barotseland Slavery abolished.[167]
1908   Ottoman Empire The Young Turk Revolution eradicates the open trade of Zanj and Circassian women from Constantinople.[168]
  Congo Free State Belgium annexes the Congo Free State, ending the practice of slavery there.
1912   Siam Slavery abolished.[161]
1915   British Malaya Slavery abolished.[169]
1917   British Raj Indian indenture system abolished.[170]
1918   United States Supreme Court rules in Arver v. United States that the 13th Amendment prohibition against involuntary servitude does not apply to conscription. The government can constitutionally force people to serve in the military against their will.
1919   Tanganyika Slavery abolished.[165]
1922   Morocco Slave trade abolished, slave holding remained legal.[171]
1923   Afghanistan Slavery abolished.[172]
  Florida Convict lease abolished after the death of Martin Tabert, who was whipped for being too ill to work.[citation needed]
  Hong Kong Slavery of Mui tsai abolished.
1924   Iraq Slavery abolished.[173]
  Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Slavery abolished[174]
  League of Nations Temporary Slavery Commission appointed.
  Turkey Slavery abolished[175]
1926     Nepal Slavery abolished.[176]
  League of Nations Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery.
  British Burma Slavery abolished.[169]
  United Kingdom Law of Property Act 1925.
1927   Spain 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
  United Kingdom
  Nejd
  Hejaz		 Treaty of Jeddah (1927) abolishing the slave trade.
1928   Sierra Leone Abolition of domestic slavery practised by local African elites.[177] Although established as a place for freed slaves, a study found practices of domestic slavery still widespread in rural areas in the 1970s.[citation needed]
  Alabama Convict lease abolished, the last state in the Union to do so.
1929   Persia Slavery abolished and criminalized.[178]
1930   League of Nations Forced Labour Convention.
1932   League of Nations Committee of Experts on Slavery appointed.
1934   League of Nations Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery appointed.
1935   Ethiopia The invading Italian General Emilio De Bono claims to have abolished slavery in the Ethiopian Empire.[179]
1936   Northern Nigeria Slavery abolished.[180]
  Bechuanaland Slavery abolished.[181]
1937   Bahrain Slavery abolished.[182]
1941   United States Franklin D. Roosevelt signs Circular 3591 abolishing all forms of convict leasing.
1945   Occupied Germany Millions of forced labourers and slaves are freed after the fall of the Third Reich; see forced labour under German rule during World War II.
  Japanese Empire Millions of forced labourers and sex slaves are freed after the defeat of the Japanese Empire; see comfort women, rōmusha, East Asia Development Board.
1946   Occupied Germany Fritz Sauckel, Nazi official responsible for procuring forced labor in occupied Europe during World War II, is convicted of crimes against humanity and hanged.[183]
  French Sudan Beginning of large slave defections encouraged by the French Fourth Republic and the Sudanese Union – African Democratic Rally party.
1948   United Nations Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares slavery contrary to human rights.[184]
1949   Kuwait Slavery abolished.[182]

1950–1999

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Date Jurisdiction Description
1950   United Nations Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery.
1952   Qatar Slavery abolished.[185][186]
1953   Australia
  Canada
  Liberia
  New Zealand
  South Africa
   Switzerland
  United Kingdom		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1954   Afghanistan
  Austria
  Cuba
  Denmark
  Egypt
  Finland
  India
  Italy
  Mexico
  Monaco
  Sweden
  Syria
1955   Ecuador
  Greece
  Iraq
  Israel
  Netherlands
  Pakistan
  Philippines
  Republic of China (Taiwan)
  Turkey
1956   United Nations Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery.
  Byelorussia[187]
  Soviet Union
  United States
  South Vietnam		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1957   United Nations The Abolition of Forced Labour Convention eliminates some exceptions admitted in the 1930 Forced Labour Convention.
  Albania
  Libya
  Burma
  Norway
  Romania
  Sudan		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1958   Bhutan Slavery abolished.[188]
  Hungary
  Ceylon		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1959   Jordan
  Morocco
  Ukraine[189]
1960   Niger Slavery abolished.[190]
  Mali First president Modibo Keita makes the effective abolition of slavery a prominent goal of the government. However, his efforts are largely abandoned during the dictatorship of Moussa Traoré (1968–1991).
1961   Nigeria 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1961   Morocco Slavery abolished under Moroccan Constitution, although domestic slave practices continued.[171]
1962   Saudi Arabia Slavery abolished.[185]
  North Yemen
  Belgium
  Sierra Leone
  Tanganyika		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1963   Algeria
  France
  Guinea
  Kuwait
    Nepal
1964   Trucial States Slavery abolished.[a]
  Jamaica
  Madagascar
  Niger
  Uganda		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1965   Malawi
1966   Brazil
  Malta
  Trinidad and Tobago
  Tunisia
1967   South Yemen Slavery abolished.[192]
1968   Mongolia 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1969   Ethiopia
  Mauritius
1970   Oman Slavery abolished.[193]
1972   Fiji 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1973   West Germany
  Mali
  Saudi Arabia
  Zambia
1974   Lesotho
1976   Bahamas
  Barbados
  Kentucky Thirteenth Amendment ratified.
1981   Mauritania Slavery abolished,[194][195] though the ban was not enforced and many people continued to be held as slaves.[196]
  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
  Solomon Islands		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1982   Papua New Guinea
1983   Bolivia
  Guatemala
1984   Cameroon
1985   Bangladesh
1986   Cyprus
  Mauritania
  Nicaragua
1987   North Yemen
1990   Bahrain
  Saint Lucia
1992   Croatia
1993   Bosnia and Herzegovina
1994   Dominica
1995   Chile
  Mississippi The Mississippi Legislature unanimously votes to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution after a clerk discovers it never had. It is the last eligible state in the union to do so. However, state officials fail to send the required documentation to the state register.[197]
1996   Azerbaijan 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1997   Kyrgyzstan
  Turkmenistan		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
1998   Ghana Forced ritual servitude of girls in Ewe shrines banned.

2000–present

edit
Date Jurisdiction Description
2001   Yugoslavia
  Uruguay		 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
2003   Niger Slavery criminalized.[190]
2006   Montenegro 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
  Mali Temedt, an organization against slavery and the discrimination of former slaves, is founded in Essakane.
2007   Mauritania Slavery criminalized.[198]
  Paraguay 1926 Slavery Convention ratified.
2008   Kazakhstan
2009   United Kingdom Section 71 of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009.[199]
2010   Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Slavery criminalized.[200]
2013   Mississippi Ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment legally recorded.[197]
2015   United Kingdom Modern Slavery Act 2015.[201]
2017   Navajo Nation Criminalization of human trafficking.[202]
  Chad Slavery criminalized.[203]
2018   Colorado Prison exception removed from Colorado's constitutional ban on slavery.[204]
2019   Iraq
  Syria		 Defeat and debellatio of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant leads to the freeing of thousands of slaves, including Yazidi and Christian sex slaves.[205][206][207]
2020   Utah
  Nebraska		 Prison exception removed from both states' constitutional ban on slavery.[208][209]
2022   Alabama
  Oregon
  Tennessee
  Vermont 		Prison exception removed from the states' constitutional ban on slavery.[210]
Present Worldwide Although slavery is now abolished de jure in all countries,[211][212] de facto practices akin to it continue today in many places throughout the world, almost exclusively in Asia and Africa.[213][214][215][216]

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ Except Abu Dhabi, the rest of the Trucial States officially abolished slavery by a joint declaration in 1956. Abu Dhabi officially abolished it in 1963.[191]

References

edit
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Further reading

edit
Main article: Bibliography of slavery in the United States
  • Campbell, Gwyn. The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (Frank Cass, 2004)
  • Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (2008) excerpt
  • Drescher, Seymour. Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
  • Drescher, Seymour. Pathways from slavery: British and colonial mobilizations in global perspective (Routledge, 2018).
  • Drescher, Seymour. "Civil Society and Paths to Abolition." Journal of Global Slavery 1.1 (2016): 44–71.
  • Finkelman, Paul, and Joseph Miller, eds. Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery (2 vol 1998)
  • Finkelman, Paul, and Seymour Drescher. "The eternal problem of slavery in international law: Killing the vampire of human culture." Michigan State Law Review (2017): 755+ online Archived 24 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Gordon, M. Slavery in the Arab World (1989)
  • Grindal, Peter. Opposing the Slavers; The Royal Navy's Campaign against the Atlantic Slave Trade (L.B. Tauris 2016) ISBN 978-1-78831-286-8
  • Hinks, Peter, and John McKivigan, eds. Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition (2 vol. 2007) 795pp; ISBN 978-0-313-33142-8
  • Lovejoy, Paul. Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge UP, 1983)
  • Mathews, Nathaniel. "The 'Fused Horizon' of Abolitionism and Islam: Historicism, the Quran and the Global History of Abolition." Journal of global slavery 4.2 (2019): 226–265.
  • Morgan, Kenneth. Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America (2008)
  • Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery (1997)
  • Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World (2007)
  • Sinha, Manisha. "The Problem of Abolition in the Age of Capitalism The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823, by David Brion Davis." American Historical Review 124.1 (2019): 144–163.
edit
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